“19th Century Japan Encounters the British Empire: Pax Britannica and Thomas Blake Glover's 'Activity'” Glover Garden

Yoon Do-won · Yonsei University

1. Introduction

The research question this field trip aims to explore is: “What is the impact of the activities of Western capital/capitalists in the East Asian region, which was 'incorporated' into the modern Western sphere?” This is a vast topic. Answering this question requires a preliminary understanding of major themes such as modernity/the West/pre-modern East Asia/encounter with modernity/capital and the role of capital. A superficial examination risks lacking systematic and organic analysis, potentially leading to unclear explanations. Therefore, it is difficult to cover all of these in this field trip. Nevertheless, the author intends to present an answer to these grand questions by focusing on the era (19th century), place (Japan), and individuals (T.B. Glover and those 'connected' to him). Through this, the author aims to re-examine/re-evaluate the dynamics of the roles and activities of the actors at a micro-level.

Previous research has 'clarified' a significant amount of information regarding the era, place, and individuals selected by the author. What, then, is the significance of this field trip? This field trip holds significance in two aspects. First, it provides a systematic introduction to the stage and characters. Encyclopedic knowledge is increasingly losing ground in the age of sophisticated large language models (LLMs). However, errors in foundational data are a serious problem. While reviewing secondary sources on the subject and materials, I encountered conflicting claims, particularly concerning factual matters rather than interpretations. Furthermore, the author has attempted to cross-verify and confirm matters that were ambiguously described in previous studies to the greatest extent possible. Second, it contributes by addressing aspects that previous research has overlooked. While the problem of exaggeration for the sake of contribution always exists, the author intends to describe and analyze aspects that, although infrequently mentioned, are deemed important. The field trip is structured around two main points. First, an explanation of Jardine Matheson & Co. (怡和洋行, hereinafter referred to as such), which is the most crucial background condition for explaining Thomas Blake Glover's (1838-1911) arrival in Japan. Glover and his Glover and Co. operated within the sphere of the British Empire's network connecting China, the Straits Settlements, and India. Jardine Matheson & Co. occupied a central position within that sphere. Although it will be discussed later, the 'role' of Jardine Matheson & Co. in East Asian modernity has been approached from an economic or business history perspective. This field trip focuses on the agency of Jardine Matheson & Co. and its outcomes. Second, a re-examination of Glover's interpersonal relationships. Including previous studies, most of the Japanese historical figures associated with him are those connected to the Chōshū Domain (長州藩). Prominent among them are Takayoshi Kido (木戸孝允, 1833-1877), one of the Three Great Nobles of the Meiji Restoration, and the Chōshū Five (長州五傑/Chōshū Five) such as Hirobumi Itō (伊藤博文, 1841-1909), Kaoru Inoue (井上馨, 1836-1915), Yōzō Yamao (山尾庸三, 1837-1917), and Kinsuke Endō (遠藤謹助, 1836-1893), as well as Masaru Inoue (井上勝, 1843-1910). Also frequently mentioned is Ryōma Sakamoto (坂本龍馬, 1836-1867) from the Tosa Domain (土佐藩), who was the 'mediator' of the Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance (Satchō Alliance). However, the frequency of mentions of figures from the Satsuma Domain, another major force with whom Glover had significant contact, is low. This is peculiar, considering the role of the Satsuma Domain in the late Tokugawa period and the subsequent contributions of its members. Therefore, to fill this gap, the author focused on the Satsuma Domain's mission to Britain in 1865. If the Chōshū Five were in 1863, then in 1865 it was 19 Satsuma retainers. Among the mission members were many key politicians, bureaucrats, and businessmen of the late Tokugawa and Meiji periods, such as Tomoatsu Godai (五代友厚, 1836-1885), Munenori Terashima (寺島宗則, 1832-1893), and Arinori Mori (森有礼, 1847-1889). As there is no comprehensive study of this mission in Korean, a basic explanation of these individuals is also appended.

264 Matheson & Co.)/怡和洋行 (hereinafter referred to as such). Glover and his Glover and Co. operated within the sphere of the British Empire's network connecting China, the Straits Settlements, and India. Jardine Matheson & Co. occupied a central position within that sphere. Although it will be discussed later, the 'role' of Jardine Matheson & Co. in East Asian modernity has been approached from an economic or business history perspective. This field trip focuses on the agency of Jardine Matheson & Co. and its outcomes. Second, a re-examination of Glover's interpersonal relationships. Including previous studies, most of the Japanese historical figures associated with him are those connected to the Chōshū Domain (長州藩). Prominent among them are Takayoshi Kido (木戸孝允, 1833-1877), one of the Three Great Nobles of the Meiji Restoration, and the Chōshū Five (長州五傑/Chōshū Five) such as Hirobumi Itō (伊藤博文, 1841-1909), Kaoru Inoue (井上馨, 1836-1915), Yōzō Yamao (山尾庸三, 1837-1917), and Kinsuke Endō (遠藤謹助, 1836-1893), as well as Masaru Inoue (井上勝, 1843-1910). Also frequently mentioned is Ryōma Sakamoto (坂本龍馬, 1836-1867) from the Tosa Domain (土佐藩), who was the 'mediator' of the Satsuma-Chōshū Alliance (Satchō Alliance). However, the frequency of mentions of figures from the Satsuma Domain, another major force with whom Glover had significant contact, is low. This is peculiar, considering the role of the Satsuma Domain in the late Tokugawa period and the subsequent contributions of its members. Therefore, to fill this gap, the author focused on the Satsuma Domain's mission to Britain in 1865. If the Chōshū Five were in 1863, then in 1865 it was 19 Satsuma retainers. Among the mission members were many key politicians, bureaucrats, and businessmen of the late Tokugawa and Meiji periods, such as Tomoatsu Godai (五代友厚, 1836-1885), Munenori Terashima (寺島宗則, 1832-1893), and Arinori Mori (森有礼, 1847-1889). As there is no comprehensive study of this mission in Korean, a basic explanation of these individuals is also appended.

This field trip aims to examine a fragment of the history of Anglo-Japanese relations and how Pax Britannica, established by the British Empire, was transformed through interactions with actors in Japan. While the United States was the nation that 'opened' Japan, it was the British Empire that led the international order in the 19th century, and Japan was also bound by its influence. Thomas Blake Glover, the 'Scottish Samurai,' was one of the individuals who skillfully utilized this influence. Before discussing him, an introduction to the stage on which we will discuss is necessary. This field trip will proceed in the order of stage/actors/events.

1.1. The Stage: The 19th Century, the Westward Advance, and Japan

From an East Asian perspective, the 19th century was a period of Westward Advance (西勢東漸). This term evokes images of advancing waves and the response to them. For the Western powers that had already achieved modernity or coined the concept, this period is remembered differently.

For instance, it was a period when their 'advanced' standards, such as the 'civilizing mission,' were transferred and disseminated to peripheral regions (Kwon Tae-eok, 2014). This was materially accompanied by the increase in the power of Western nations, and on a non-material, spiritual/imaginative level, it served as the foundation for the West's superior epistemology regarding the non-West.

Although the 19th century is referred to as the era of Westward Advance, the responses and reactions of the three East Asian countries—Joseon, Qing China, and the Tokugawa Shogunate—varied. These differing responses charted the historical paths of the three nations. A commonly cited example is the discussion of the different outcomes for Joseon and the Tokugawa Shogunate due to the difference in their 'opening' dates. A typical comparison is the discussion of the differing results of the two countries caused by the difference in their 'opening' times: the arrival of Commodore Perry's Black Ships in 1853 (Kaei 6) and the Japan-US Treaty of Peace and Amity (March 1854) versus the Unyō Incident (September 1875) and the Treaty of Ganghwa (February 1876). If the structures and conditions faced by the two 'nations' were similar, a Most Similar Systems Design would be applicable; however, it is appropriate to adopt a Most Different Systems Design for the two countries, as they differed significantly. For instance, the 'centralized' state of Joseon and the Bakuhan system (幕藩体制) adopted by the Tokugawa Shogunate differed greatly in their material and non-material orientations toward the center. Focusing on the Tokugawa Shogunate, it maintained its political system by placing its direct territories, the Goryō (御領) or Tenryō (天領), in key locations across the Japanese archipelago. Furthermore, it distinguished and treated lords/daimyo (大名) by categorizing them into Shinpan (親藩), comprising their relatives such as the Gosanke (御三家), Gosankyō (御三卿), and Isshin (一門); Fudai (譜代), composed of vassals who served before the establishment of the shogunate; and Tozama (外様), who submitted after the shogunate's establishment. Analyzing the Tokugawa Shogunate by modern political science standards, it was a military dictatorship. This system could not guarantee its legitimacy if a stronger power emerged that threatened its security or if it lost in a power competition with such a force. Because its rule was based more on 'violence,' a material force, rather than a mechanism of legitimacy, its ruling legitimacy would quickly falter in situations where it could not guarantee this power. In the Tokugawa Shogunate era, this power was expressed as 'Goikō' (御威光) (Watanabe, 2023). And this Goikō rapidly lost its luster after the arrival of the Black Ships in 1853. When this situation occurred, political upheaval occurred even in the territories of Shinpan daimyo such as the Mito Domain (水戸藩), but intense activity was triggered in the territories of the Tozama daimyo, who were located at the periphery of the Tokugawa Bakuhan system. In particular, the four domains of Chōshū, Satsuma, Tosa, and Saga (=Hizen), which had succeeded in 'domain reforms' to the extent that they were called 'strong domains' (雄藩), came to be known as Satsuchōhi (薩長土肥) and emerged as the leading forces of the Meiji Restoration (三谷, 2012; Park Hoon, 2014; Park Hoon, 2019; Park Hoon, 2020).

267

2. Actors: The British Empire, Merchants, and Glover

2.1. Protagonist I: Glover 2.1.1. Research History

In this historical context, Glover adjusted his activities and their scope. The Glover Garden, which we will visit, is a relevant place to examine the trajectory of him and his company in the 1860s. The interactions between individuals that occurred at this location remain unforgettable scenes in the politics of the late Tokugawa period (Bakumatsu).

The research on Glover can be broadly divided into trends in research within Japan and outside Japan. First, the trends in Japan. Major research works are listed below. These research trends focus on his personal life and the historical events in Japan that he influenced.

○ Sugiyama, Shinya. (1984). “Thomas B. Glover: A British

Merchant in Japan, 1861-1870.” Business History 26(2), pp.122- 38.

269 6.19th Century Japan Encounters the British Empire_Glover Garden ○ Sugiyama (杉山, 1993). 『Meiji Ishin to Igirisu Shōnin: Thomas Glover no Shōgai』 (The Meiji Restoration and British Merchants: The Life of Thomas Glover).

トマス・グラバーの生涯 (The Meiji Restoration and British Merchants: The Life of Thomas Glover).

○ Naitō (内藤, 2001). 『Thomas B. Glover Shimatsu: Meiji Kengoku no Yōshō』 (Thomas B. Glover: A Western Merchant in the Founding of the Meiji Era).

明治建国の洋商 (Thomas B. Glover: A Western Merchant in the Founding of the Meiji Era). ○ Mizuta (水田, 2017).

『Bakumatsu Meiji Shoki no Yōshiki Sangyō Shisetsu to Glover Shōkai』 (Western Industrial Facilities in the Late Tokugawa and Early Meiji Periods and Glover and Co.).

Next are the research trends outside of Japan. These research trends are similar to those in Japan, but they also tend to highlight his background (Scottish). Major research works are as follows:

○ McKay, Alexander. (1993). Scottish Samurai: The Life of Thomas Blake Glover.

○ Gardiner, Michael. (2007). At the Edge of Empire: The Life of Thomas B. Glover.

The monographs by McKay (1993) and Gardiner (2007)/Gardena (2012) form the foundational basis for Glover's life and related stories. These works, based on primary sources written by Glover, present multifaceted aspects of his life. The biggest challenge in biographical research depends on the availability of primary sources. Glover left behind a considerable amount of primary material. The materials left by Glover include ➀ Glover, Thomas. Uncollected Letters, 1858-1910, ➁ Glover, Thomas. Records of Takashima Colliery, 1869-70. These materials are currently available at the Nagasaki Prefectural Library (長崎県立長崎図書館) (Gardiner, 2007; Gardena, 2012). Although not published, 『Glover Shidan Sokki』 (Glover Anecdotes, Verbatim Record) is also a major source.

270 materials. Glover left behind a considerable amount of primary material. The materials left by Glover include ➀ Glover, Thomas. Uncollected Letters, 1858-1910, ➁ Glover, Thomas. Records of Takashima Colliery, 1869-70. These materials are currently available at the Nagasaki Prefectural Library (長崎県立長崎図書館) (Gardiner, 2007; Gardena, 2012). Although not published, 『Glover Shidan Sokki』 (Glover Anecdotes, Verbatim Record) is also a major source.

Additionally, research on the history of Anglo-Japanese economic relations and analyses of Glover in Korea were indirectly utilized. To the best of the author's knowledge, there is no comprehensive study on Thomas B. Glover in Korea. However, Chapter 3, “19th Century Anglo-Japanese Relations and Thomas Glover,” in 『Korean International Politics Scholars Encounter Modern Japanese History: Kyushu and Tokyo Stories of Seoul National University Students』, published by Seoul National University Press in 2012, discusses him. This content is divided into his personal history, 19th-century Anglo-Japanese relations, his encounters with Takayoshi Kido and the Chōshū Five, and an evaluation. Although brief, it is noteworthy as a foundational source written in Korean. ○ Sugiyama (杉山, 2017). 『Nichiei Keizai Kankei Shi Kenkyū: 1860-1940』 (A Study on the History of Anglo-Japanese Economic Relations: 1860-1940).

○ Seoul National University College of Social Sciences Department of Political Science and International Relations Division of International Relations. (2012). 『Korean International Politics Scholars Encounter Modern Japanese History: Kyushu and Tokyo Stories of Seoul National University Students』.

271 6.19th Century Japan Encounters the British Empire_Glover Garden 2.1.2. Biography

Based on cross-verification of these sources, his personal life and process of arriving in Japan are described in detail as follows: Thomas Blake Glover was born on June 6, 1838, in Fraserburgh, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, as the fifth of eight children to Thomas Berry Glover (1806-1878), a coast guard officer in Vauxhall, London, and Mary Findlay (1807-1887), from the parish of Fordyce, Banffshire. He spent his first six years in Fraserburgh, a rapidly growing fishing and trading port. His family moved in 1844, first to the coast guard in Grimsby, then to Collieston in Aberdeenshire, and finally to Bridge of Don in Aberdeen. At this time, his father was promoted to Chief Coast Guard Officer. Young Thomas first received his education at the newly opened parish school in Fraserburgh, then at elementary schools in Grimsby and Collieston, and finally at the Chanonry School in Old Aberdeen. After graduating from school, Glover was employed as a shipping clerk at the trading company Jardine Matheson & Co. and moved to Shanghai in 1857. While various reasons have been suggested for his decision to move to East Asia, there is no clear evidence.

272 On September 19, 1859, at the age of 21, Glover moved from Shanghai to Nagasaki. His move to Nagasaki has a clearer reason compared to his move to Shanghai. He traveled to Japan with his colleague Kenneth Mackenzie. It is important to note the timing of his arrival in Japan. This period was shortly after the opening of Nagasaki, as stipulated in the 'Ansei Five Treaties' (安政五カ国条約), including the 'US-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce' (日米修好通商条約) of 1858. According to Article 3 of the 'US-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce,' in addition to Shimoda and Hakodate, which were opened by the 'US-Japan Treaty of Peace and Amity,' Kanagawa/Yokohama and Nagasaki were scheduled to open on July 4, 1859, Niigata on January 1, 1860, and Hyogo on January 1, 1863. Although not clearly elucidated in previous studies, a Japanese trading base for Jardine Matheson & Co. was planned to be established in Yokohama, so Glover and Mackenzie had to find a port other than Yokohama. The only options were Hakodate in Hokkaido or Nagasaki. Furthermore, considering the connection to the trade network with China, Nagasaki was the only practical choice.

Initially, Glover focused on purchasing and exporting Japanese tea and trading Western goods. When his business partner Mackenzie withdrew from Japan in 1861, he launched his own company, Glover and Co., in the same year. Although Glover and Co. existed for a short period from 1861 to 1870, its impact on the politics of the late Tokugawa period was significant. What, then, were the trade trends at that time? Customs data on the value and proportion of imports and exports at Nagasaki Port for the period 1863-70, which is almost the same as the period when the company existed, remains. Starting as a tea merchant, his career as a merchant became increasingly prominent as an arms broker supplying weapons and warships from the mid-1860s onwards. He was a Western merchant (洋商) who closely followed the flow of politics in the late Tokugawa period. Figures 1 and 2 below visualize the import/export proportions of goods at Nagasaki Port during the period when Glover was primarily active. He was an individual who 'walked alongside' the trends of the era.

[Figure 1] Imports to Nagasaki Port, 1863-1870

Source: Sugiyama (1984), p.120.

274 Note 1: Unit is %.

[Figure 2] Exports from Nagasaki Port, 1863-1870

Source: Sugiyama (1984), p.121. Note 1: Unit is %.

2.2. Protagonist II: Jardine Matheson & Co. 2.2.1. A Key Player in the Modern East Asian Regime

Jardine Matheson & Co. was Glover's first employer and an important partner in his Japanese business. Therefore, the company is invariably mentioned when discussing Glover's trajectory. However, from an objective perspective, discussing Jardine Matheson & Co. with Glover as the central figure is a prime example of putting the cart before the horse. This is because Jardine Matheson & Co. was one of the key players deeply involved in the origins of modern East Asia. There are numerous studies on Jardine Matheson & Co. This field trip will primarily refer to Blake, Robert. (1999). Jardine Matheson: Traders of the Far East. and Ishii (石井, 1984) 『Kindai Nihon to Igirisu Shihon: Jardine Matheson Shōkai o Chūshin ni』 (Modern Japan and British Capital: Focusing on Jardine Matheson & Co.).

Various theories have been proposed regarding the causes of the Westward Advance in the 19th century. It is difficult or futile to explain such a vast inductive reality with a single factor, such as politics, economics, society, or culture. If we try to explain the reality of the 19th-century Westward Advance with only specific factors, we risk falling into a major error. However, we can easily identify a specific historical event as the starting point of modern East Asia and the beginning of the Westward Advance. This is the First Opium War, which took place from 1839 to 1842.

As a major historical event, numerous studies have been conducted on the causes of the Opium War. Fundamentally, the war broke out due to a combination of factors, including the trade imbalance between Britain and China, the harmful effects of opium as a trade commodity, and the actions of actors such as Emperor Daoguang (道光帝, r. 1820-50) and Lin Zexu (林則徐, 1785-1850), and Britain's response. If we distinguish between the remote causes (遠因) and immediate causes (近因) of the war, the general conditions constitute the remote causes. What, then, are the immediate causes? In the process of exploring this question, we encounter Jardine Matheson & Co.

276 constitute the remote causes. What, then, are the immediate causes? In the process of exploring this question, we encounter Jardine Matheson & Co.

2.2.2. Establishment and 'Opium'

The establishment and prosperity of Jardine Matheson & Co. coincided with changes in the existing trade regime. For a long time, the British East India Company held a monopoly on Far East trade. This measure continuously caused dissatisfaction among merchants. In addition to the monopoly, some of the high-handed methods used by the East India Company were also problematic. Those who entered this monopolized market and caused competition were punished as 'pirates.' Although free traders sometimes obtained permission from the East India Company to participate in 'country trade,' their trading partners were generally restricted. So, what was the way to avoid this situation? People at the time began to accept foreign consular jurisdiction. This method, first used by John Reid, a Scottish sailor, was adopted by William Jardine (1784-1843) when he established his business in Canton.

When the British East India Company's monopoly on trade in China ended in 1834, Jardine, James Nicolas Sutherland Matheson (1796-1878), and their fellow/rival English merchants sought to fill the vacuum left by the East India Company. Jardine Matheson & Co. transformed from a major commercial agent of the East India Company into one of the largest trading companies in Asia. Jardine came to be called 'Taipan' (大班), a colloquial Chinese term meaning 'manager,' by other traders. Jardine Matheson & Co. emerged as a major player in the market by establishing the means to reach the consumer market first.

The short-term success of Jardine Matheson & Co. was accompanied by 'immoral' factors such as the opium trade. Jardine Matheson & Co. was not the only supplier of opium. This was essentially due to the importance of opium in mass trade. To preemptively state, 'China had a trade surplus of approximately 26 million Mexican dollars from its foreign trade between 1800 and 1810, but a deficit of approximately 38 million Mexican dollars between 1828 and 1836' (Blake, 2022: 46). This remarkable reversal was the result of opium exports. Previously, Britain had covered the cost of importing tea from China by exporting goods such as raw cotton from India and silver ingots, but now it could resolve this trade imbalance solely through opium exports. So, how much opium was imported? While there is no clear data, the following estimate has been proposed based on the list of prohibited items: 'Between 1800-1821, opium transactions averaged 4,500 cases per year, with 63.5 kilograms per case, but thereafter, the volume increased dramatically. It rose to 19,000 cases in 1831-32, and approached 40,000 cases in 1838-39' (Blake, 2022: 47).

278 2.2.3. Promoter & Trigger of the Opium War

The increase in trade deficit and the derivative effects of opium as a trade commodity triggered actions by the Qing authorities, and conflicts between Qing China and the British Empire, or more precisely, the merchants of the British Empire, came to the surface. In December 1838, Emperor Daoguang dispatched Lin Zexu as Imperial Commissioner (欽差大臣) to rectify the situation. Lin Zexu intended to address opium through two approaches. First, controlling opium use with the cooperation of local gentry. Second, an approach of actively eradicating the root cause.

The root cause refers not only to opium brokers in Guangzhou, fast opium transport boats, opium dens, warehouses,

smoking rooms, and other visible corruption. It means that Lin Zexu must carefully observe the timing and circumstances and actively cut out opium from the root.

smoking rooms, and other visible corruption. It means that Lin Zexu must carefully observe the timing and circumstances and actively cut out opium from the root (Cambridge

smoking rooms, and other visible corruption. It means that Lin Zexu must carefully observe the timing and circumstances and actively cut out opium from the root (Cambridge

History of China, vol.Ⅹ, 1978: 185).

The response of Western merchants to this can be divided into cooperative and confrontational approaches. Jardine Matheson adopted a confrontational stance towards Qing China, aiming to dismantle the 'restricted trade' that began in Guangzhou in 1757. They sought to break the Canton System to expand their profits.

279 6. 19th Century Japan Encounters the British Empire_Glover Garden On December 19, 1839, the date of the outbreak of armed conflict with Qing China [First Battle of Humen (穿鼻海戰)], Jardine wrote a letter to Madison detailing specific expedition plans and future objectives.

My advice is to blockade the Chinese coast from south of the Great Wall to Zhuanzhou [place name],

or from 20 to 40 degrees North latitude, with a naval force

consisting of two ships of the line, two frigates,

and two flat-bottomed steamers capable of navigating the river,

including sufficient transport ships to carry 6,000-7,000 naval personnel.

The navy should advance to near Beijing and demand from the Emperor an apology for the insult, compensation for the forfeited opium,

a fair trade agreement, and, if possible, the freedom to trade with northern ports such as Xiamen, Fuzhou, Ningbo, Shanghai, and Qingdao.

(Blake, 2022:158).

How did their demands materialize? Could the request of one trading company influence the decision-making of the British Empire? While it is difficult to definitively prove this, we can find evidence that demonstrates the influence of Jardine Matheson at this time, as the voices of the parties involved remain. The witness is Lord Palmerston. Shortly after the end of the First Opium War, Lord Palmerston, Henry John Temple (1784-1865), who had served as Foreign Secretary during the war but was temporarily out of office, sent the following document to Smith, the London agent of Jardine Matheson.

280 November 28, 1842

It is due to the excellent assistance and information you [Smith] and Mr. Jardine have provided us that we were able to give such detailed instructions regarding our military and diplomatic affairs in China, leading to successful results.

The information obtained from the various individuals you and we met in the autumn of 1839

was so accurately and perfectly reflected in the instructions we issued in February 1840

that our successors apparently found no reason to alter the instructions in the slightest.

This is truly remarkable. As subsequent events proved, decisive military operations were carried out on the Yangtze River, which was the operation we had proposed to the naval commander as early as February 1840.

Furthermore, the terms of the treaty precisely match those we advised our plenipotentiaries, Elliot and Pottinger, to secure.

This event, which will usher in a new era in the development of human civilization, will undoubtedly bring the greatest commercial advantages to Britain (Blake, 2022:178).

A single document does not tell the whole story. Nevertheless, through Lord Palmerston's remarks, a key decision-maker in British foreign policy, it is not difficult to understand that Jardine Matheson played a crucial role in the preparation, execution, and outcome of the First Opium War. The First Opium War was a symbolic beginning of the Western powers' encroachment into East Asia. And at that beginning stood Jardine Matheson.

281 6. 19th Century Japan Encounters the British Empire_Glover Garden Considering the actions of Jardine Matheson, the activities and influence of British merchants in East Asian countries could not be limited to trade. They sought to secure and expand their influence by combining British naval power with their own financial resources. From this perspective, we can re-examine the activities and influence of Glover, who came to Japan at a young age and established his business there. Beyond Glover's individual capabilities and vision, the geopolitical condition of Pax Britannica provided the foundation for his scope of activity and influence. Ultimately, the activities and influence of merchants within the British imperial network were mediated by the direction of British global strategy and national interests.

3. Events

3.1. Encounter with Satsuma Domain Samurai (遭遇) [Photo 1] Commemorative monument for Japanese students in 'Japan' from 1863-1865 at UCL

282

Photo

Existing research has focused on the encounters between Glover and Japanese patriots (志士). Many studies have highlighted exchanges with Chōshū Domain samurai. Figures such as Kido Takayoshi, the Chōshū Five, and Sakamoto Ryōma are revisited in both academic and popular writings, often with a romanticized atmosphere. The author also considered reconstructing the narrative focusing on Chōshū Domain or individuals associated with it. However, upon seeing the following photograph, the author discovered a different story. The photograph above is a commemorative monument established at University College London (UCL). It bears the names of 24 Japanese individuals who had ties to UCL. Aside from the Chōshū Five who arrived at UCL in 1863, who were the remaining 19 individuals who 'arrived' at UCL in 1865? These 19 individuals were samurai from the Satsuma Domain who departed for Britain as part of the Satsuma Domain Mission to Britain (薩摩藩遣英使節団). Specifically, 17 were Satsuma samurai, and 2 were from other domains. In terms of roles, there were 3 leaders/guides, 1 interpreter, and 15 students. Table 1 below provides a brief profile of the 19 individuals.

[Table 1] List of the Satsuma Domain Mission to Britain (薩摩藩遣英使節団) Name Age Remarks

Machida Hisanari

27 First Director of the Imperial Museum (町田久成)

Machida Takehiko

20 (町田猛彦)

Machida Shinshiro

Machida Seijo

14 (町田清蔵)

Hatakeyama

23 Participant in the Iwakura Mission

Yoshinari (開成学校校長) (畠山義成)

283 Samejima Naonobu

23 Acting Minister to Great Britain and France (鮫島尚信)

Nagasawa Kanae "Ancestor of Japan-U.S. Friendship"

13

(長澤鼎) (日米交流の祖) Mori Arinori Ambassador to China

18

(森有礼) First Minister of Education Matsumura Junzo

23 Studied at the U.S. Naval Academy (松村淳蔵)

Yoshida Kiyonari Participant in the Iwakura Mission

20

(吉田清成) Ambassador to the United States

Murahashi Hisanari Established the Kaitakushi Beer Brewery

23

Involvement of (Mura-hashi Hisanari)

Takami Yaichi

34 (Takami Yaichi)

Togo Ainoshin

25? (Togo Ainoshin)

Nagoshi Heima

20 (Nagoshi Heima)

Tanaka Seishu

23 (Tanaka Seishu)

285 19th Century Japan Encounters the British Empire_Glover Garden Nakamura Hironari Marseille Consul & Denmark

21

(Nakamura Hironari) Ambassador, Member of the House of Peers

Niiro Chuzo

33 Escort (Niiro Chuzo)

Guide

Terashima Munenori

33 Minister of Foreign Affairs / Minister of Education / (Terashima Munenori)

Councilor (参議)

Godai Tomoatsu, Guide

29

(Godai Tomoatsu) Engaged in business after returning to Japan, Hori Takayuki Interpreter

21

(Hori Takayuki) Native of Nagasaki Source: Reconstructed by the author based on Inuzuka (1974).

Note 1: Ages are based on the year 1865.

Among them, the only individuals I knew beforehand were Mori Arinori, who served as the first Minister of Education, and Terashima Munenori, who served as Minister of Education. I became primarily curious about their identities and began to investigate the purpose of their trip to England and their subsequent activities. I also explored how they came into contact with Glover. Detailed information on all 19 individuals was not available in Japanese or Western sources. Their historical standing varied according to their individual achievements after the mission.

286 Their historical standing varied according to their individual paths. This study primarily relies on Inuzuka (1974), "Students Sent to England by the Satsuma Domain," and Inuzuka (2001), "The Meiji Restoration of Secretly Departed Students: Inoue Kaoru and the Late Tokugawa Domain Samurai."

The author wishes to focus on Godai Tomoatsu, an individual with a remarkable career and various connections with Glover among the personnel. While the encounter with him was coincidental, the more I researched him, the more intriguing aspects I found. He is generally referred to with the expression, "Shibusawa in the East, Godai in the West." Shibusawa Eiichi (1840-1931) was a government official and a leading industrialist representing modern Japanese capitalism. Godai was a cornerstone of Osaka's modern industrial and business world.

3.2. 'The Versatile Godai' 3.2.1. The First Half of His Life

Regarding his biography, the following content will be described based on Tatsuki's (2018) biography, "Godai Tomoatsu: Prosperous Nation, Strong Military is the 'Principle on Earth'." He was born in 1836 (Tenpo 6) in Kagoshima Castle, Satsuma Province, as the second son of Godai Naosaemon Hidetaka (五代直左衛門秀尭), the author and archivist of "Sangoku Meisho Zue" (三国名勝図会). Raised in the spirit of Satsuma, which emphasized practical learning and truth-seeking, he attended Jidoin no Gakujuku (児童院の学塾) at the age of eight and entered Seido (聖堂) at twelve, acquiring a comprehensive education in both civil and military arts.

Like his contemporaries born during the Tenpo era (1831-45), the most significant turning point in Godai's life was the arrival of the Black Ships in 1853 and the subsequent 15 turbulent years of the late Tokugawa period. In 1854 (Ansei 1), when Perry's ships reappeared off Uraga, the entire nation was in turmoil. It is said that Godai was moved, thinking, "This is the time for a young man to set his aspirations." In 1855 (Ansei 2), he became an assistant official in charge of regional affairs for the Satsuma domain. Despite his brother being a proponent of seclusion, he took a stance in favor of opening the country. The following year, he was dispatched as a domain trainee to the Nagasaki Naval Training Institute (長崎海軍伝習所) to learn navigation from Dutch instructors. This marked Godai's first significant engagement with modern scholarship. In 1862 (Bunkyu 2), he boarded the Chōseimaru (千歳丸), a ship owned by the Shogunate, as a sailor to conclude a contract for the purchase of a steamship for the domain, traveling to Shanghai.

In August 1863 (Bunkyu 3), following the Namamugi Incident in September 1862, the Anglo-Satsuma War resulted in the British confiscating three Satsuma steamships. During this conflict, Godai and Terashima Munenori were taken prisoner by the British Navy. Godai, through the scheme of interpreter Shimizu

288 Usaburo (清水卯三郎), managed to 'escape' the British warship via a small boat from Yokohama. However, he was burdened by the stigma of being captured by the British within the domain. Unable to return to Satsuma immediately, he stayed in Nagasaki. Through the arrangements of Nomura Morihide (野村盛秀), a samurai of the Satsuma domain whom he met in Nagasaki, he was granted permission to return.

3.2.2. Encounter with the Scottish Samurai

During his period of seclusion in 1863-64, Godai and Glover interacted in Nagasaki. Prior to this period, it would have been difficult for the two to meet or for their meetings to be amicable. Following the Namamugi Incident in September 1862, relations between Britain and Satsuma, and between Satsuma and the Shogunate, were strained due to the resolution and 'compromise' of the incident. Instead, the 'war' in August 1863 served as a catalyst for concluding that situation and entering a new phase. Although Britain and Satsuma engaged in armed conflict, after the 'war,' the British Empire began to consider advancing relations with Satsuma and reconsidering its relationship with the Shogunate. For the Satsuma side, the 'war' was instrumental in realizing the impracticality of the policy of expulsion of foreigners (Joi).

Notably, after the Anglo-Satsuma 'War,' Glover began to actively 'assist' the powerful domains in the southwestern region. It was at this 'coordinated' timing that Godai and the 'Scottish Samurai' met. 289 19th Century Japan Encounters the British Empire_Glover Garden However, Godai's circumstances were constrained. Because Godai and Terashima Munenori had 'surrendered' to the British during the war, they had to hide from the eyes of Shogunate officials and the anti-foreign faction that supported the exclusion of foreigners. Both 'fugitives' were suspected of treason by both the Satsuma clan and the Tokugawa Shogunate. In this predicament, Godai built a friendship with Glover while in hiding in Nagasaki. By forming a friendly relationship with him, Godai gained a deeper understanding of world affairs.

In line with this 'understanding,' around June 1864, Godai submitted a memorial (上書) to the Satsuma domain regarding the modernization reforms of Japan. The memorial submitted by Godai included the following specific points: 1) Modernize the Satsuma clan's industries by purchasing state-of-the-art machinery. 2) Dispatch students abroad to learn modern technology and acquire knowledge of Western civilization. 3) Hire foreign technicians. 4) Secure the necessary funds for the project (including specific details such as trade with Shanghai). He argued that people should study abroad to learn Western technology and promote Japan's modernization, otherwise Japan would fall behind the times. The Satsuma domain, which was focusing on strengthening its military power, adopted his proposals and decided to dispatch 15 students along with an inspection team of 3+1 members to Britain. In April 1865 (Keio 1), following the domain's orders, Godai, along with Terashima Munenori and Mori Arinori, departed for Britain as a delegation from the Satsuma domain and toured various parts of Europe.

290 Glover was directly involved in the dispatch of the Satsuma domain's delegation. In addition to prompting Godai's memorial, Glover provided practical assistance to the project. The delegation departed for Britain on April 17, 1865, from Kushikino-shima (present-day Ichikikushikino, Kagoshima Prefecture) aboard the steamship "Australia" (オースタライエン号), arranged by Glover. Godai arrived in Britain in May, and in July, he visited Belgium, then Prussia in September, the Netherlands, and finally France. After returning to Japan in February 1866 (Keio 2), Godai was promoted (御小納戸奉公格) and appointed to the position of accounting manager overseeing the commercial affairs of the Satsuma domain. During this period, he began to demonstrate his capabilities as a businessman by jointly establishing a dock with Glover in Kosuge, Nagasaki. The dock in question is colloquially known as the "Soroban Dock" (そろばんドック) and still exists today. [Kosuge Shipyard Site].

3.2.3. After the Meiji Restoration

In 1868 (Keio 4), when the Boshin War broke out, Godai, along with Saigo Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi, played an active role in overthrowing the Shogunate. As a result, in 1868 (Meiji 1), he was appointed to the position of Councilor of Foreign Affairs (参与職外国事務掛) in the new Meiji government.

291 19th Century Japan Encounters the British Empire_Glover Garden

He concurrently served as Foreign Affairs Official (外国官権判事) and Governor of Osaka (大阪府権判事), where he dealt with diplomatic matters such as the Sakai Incident and the attack on British Minister Parkes. In addition to handling diplomatic affairs, Godai attracted the Osaka Mint. Furthermore, he became the first customs director of Osaka, marking the beginning of the Osaka Customs history. After retiring from his official post in 1869 (Meiji 2), he collaborated with Motoki Shozo to publish an English-Japanese dictionary and established a gold and silver assay office to enhance the credibility of currency. He also contributed to the development of various industries, including textiles, mining, and salt production.

Although he retired from public office, his strong ties with the Satsuma-Choshu government led him to be involved in events such as the Osaka Conference (大阪会議, February 11, 1875), where Okubo Toshimichi, Kido Takayoshi, and Itagaki Taisuke gathered to exchange opinions, and the scandal of the sale of Hokkaido Development Commission properties, for which Kuroda Kiyotaka faced criticism. He exhibited the characteristics of a "political merchant" (政商), similar to Iwasaki Yataro (1835-1885), the founder of Mitsubishi. In addition, along with Osaka business figures such as Tanaka Ichibe (1838-1910), he founded the Osaka Stock Exchange, the Osaka Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Osaka Commercial School, the Osaka Bronze Company, the Kansai Trading Company, the Joint Transportation Company, the Kobe Port, the Osaka Steamship Company, and the Hankai Railway. His actions were undoubtedly worthy of being called the 'Father of Modern Osaka's Economy'.

292 When evaluating a person's life, various perspectives can be taken. Personally, I believe that the moments of lowest and highest points are among these perspectives. In particular, the actions taken by an individual at their lowest point can be a moment to confront their true nature. Reflecting on Godai's life, the period of 1863-64 was the most tumultuous. As a key figure in the 'modernization' of the Satsuma domain, he had shown promise from his youth. However, the Anglo-Satsuma 'War' of 1863 brought about a disaster for him. He became a 'shunned' figure, noticed by both the domain and the Shogunate. A rapid 'downfall' occurred in a short period. He was in 'hiding' in Nagasaki during this time, a moment when crisis transformed into opportunity. Through his encounters and interactions with Glover, he found an opportunity for deeper thought and 'turnaround.' Beyond a simple human encounter, the meeting between Godai and Glover continued as a positive chain reaction. It laid the foundation for expansion and development, such as the dispatch of students by the Satsuma domain in 1865 and the joint business ventures between the Satsuma domain (Godai) and Glover. Although the author did not focus significantly on the mining industry in describing Godai's life, considering that Glover's main area of activity after the Meiji Restoration was in mining and coal, the relationship between the two can be considered closely connected.

Then, why did Glover 'resonate' with young patriots like Godai? Previous research summarizes the motives behind Glover's 'intervention' in the realities of the late Tokugawa period as: 1) pursuit of his own profit, 2) pursuit of ideals, and 3) an imperialistic perspective. These motives are not mutually exclusive but rather manifest differently depending on the situation. Nevertheless, should not Glover's own statements take precedence when discussing him? Glover described himself as "the greatest traitor to the Tokugawa Shogunate" (McKay, 1993). While it is not clearly understood what aspects of the Tokugawa Shogunate he held negative views on, it can be assessed that he had a strong incentive to strongly resist the Shogunate's power. Furthermore, Glover highly valued the intermediary role he played in 1866 in facilitating the trip of the British Minister to Japan, Harry S. Parkes (1828-1885), to Satsuma. In 1866, Parkes met with the domain lord Shimazu Tadayoshi, the 'national father' Shimazu Hisamitsu, Saigo Takamori, and Terashima Munenori through this encounter. This meeting was a stage for historical encounters and negotiations.

Glover's 'recollection' is important not just for boasting about his role as an intermediary, but also for recognizing the historical significance of the intermediary actions he facilitated. And for Glover, Godai Tomoatsu was the primary point of contact with Satsuma. The 'encounter' between the two, which could have faded away as a mere chance meeting, functioned beyond a personal interaction. It was a pipeline mediating between Satsuma, the Glover Trading Company, and the British Empire. And this pipeline connected with other pipelines, forming the basis for driving 'revolutionary' change.

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4. Conclusion

This study is structured around the E.H. Hunter Company, Thomas Glover, and Godai Tomoatsu. While I attempted to organically connect the era, place, and individuals to construct the study, I cannot confidently assert that the plan was achieved as initially intended. I tried to capture one aspect of the chain reaction of individual elements, but the chain reaction exceeded the dimensions I had envisioned. Nevertheless, this study has developed its arguments by focusing on the following three dimensions.

First, a reconsideration of the role of Western merchants, such as E.H. Hunter, during the period of Western encroachment in East Asia in the 19th century. Capital is a fundamental condition for all historical events, but in 19th-century East Asia, it not only formed the foundation but also acted as the primary driving force of activity. Second, a reconsideration of the agency of Thomas Glover as an individual. Beyond his personal character and intentions, he maximally utilized the influence of the global network of the British Empire in the 19th century and functioned as a part of that network. This connection formed the basis for his scope of activity and influence. Based on this, he emerged as one of the indispensable historical 'figures' in the history of late Tokugawa Japan. Third, a reconsideration of the agency of Satsuma samurai, such as Godai Tomoatsu. While existing research has significantly addressed the role of Satsuma samurai like Saigo Takamori and Okubo Toshimichi in the late Tokugawa period, the relationship with Thomas Glover, discussed in this study, has been treated cursorily. The author focused on the connection between the Satsuma Domain's mission to Britain and its central figure, Godai Tomoatsu, and described its significance and impact.

While writing this study, I experienced both the joy of connecting fragmented knowledge I previously possessed and the arduousness of constructing a narrative by organically synthesizing macroscopic and microscopic perspectives. Although it is a daunting task, I pledge that such attempts will continue in other research.

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