The Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Two Perspectives from Korea and Japan

Cho Hyun-hee · Seoul National University

Introduction: Ceramic Technology Transfer Before the Imjin War

Ceramics from the pre-Industrial Revolution era serve as a window into the world of their time, as they were key items of exchange within the East Asian cultural sphere and, furthermore, connected to Sino-European cultural exchange. In the past, ceramics, unlike their current status as mere handicraft products, were at the core of civilization, analyzable within the contexts of East Asian art history, cultural history, and political economy. Changes in political events, such as dynastic changes in China or national wars like the Imjin War, significantly impacted the development of the East Asian ceramic industry and subsequent changes in its trade structure. In the 16th-century ceramic trade, most exported ceramics, such as blue-and-white porcelain, required stable access to high-level technology and raw materials, along with a production system capable of mass production. Ceramic technology at that time, unlike earlier pottery, was an advanced technology acquired through scientific experiments concerning fuel, firing techniques, and kiln structures. Acquiring such cutting-edge technology was not something that could be achieved easily within a single century. Until the 16th century, only China and Joseon possessed this technology, and it was a highly labor-intensive, cutting-edge product of the pre-modern era that required such advanced skills that European countries could only produce it by the 18th century (Kim Yu-jeong, 2017, 3). However, the structure of the East Asian ceramic industry began to change in the mid-17th century. Japan, a latecomer, emerged in the global trade market and achieved remarkable development by exporting ceramics to Europe. This suggests that the process of acquiring ceramic technology in a short period existed, and considering the nature of apprenticeship-based technology transfer in ceramics at the time, it could only have been direct technology transfer through the movement of skilled artisans. The direct impetus originated from the Imjin War and Jeongyu War in the late 16th century, known as the 'Pottery Wars' in Japan, where Japanese daimyo forcibly abducted Joseon potters. Specifically, there is very little research focusing on how abducted Joseon potters transmitted ceramic technology to Japan. Therefore, this study aims to review existing related research on how both Korea and Japan view the introduction of Joseon ceramic technology during the Imjin War and analyze the differences in their perspectives.

The Scientific and Technological Nature of Ceramics

The term "ceramics" (陶瓷器) is a collective term for pottery and porcelain. Although not strictly distinguished, there are significant technical differences.

120 Generally, pottery, earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain are classified into four stages, with earthenware excluded and the remaining items referred to as ceramics, with the final stage being porcelain. The criteria for these four classifications are the clay and firing temperature. Items fired above 1,000°C are classified as pottery, those fired above 1,200°C as stoneware, and those fired above 1,300°C as porcelain. Furthermore, while pottery and stoneware are primarily made of clay, porcelain is made of kaolin. Pottery is less hard than porcelain. If pottery is placed in a kiln at the firing temperature for porcelain, it will turn black and break. Therefore, to maintain a transparent color while withstanding high heat, higher quality white clay than existing hard-fired porcelain is required. This necessitates the discovery of new, advanced raw materials. Calculated experiments are needed to determine the chemical reactions that will occur in the kiln when the raw material is mixed with clay to obtain results that maintain the shape of white porcelain at high temperatures. The discovery of scientific knowledge and the convergence of scientific technology are achieved through chemical calculations and repeated laboratory experiments using raw materials found in the local soil. In particular, the scientific and technological aspects of ceramics are most evident in firing technology. In the case of porcelain, not only physical aspects such as combustion technology, kiln technology, and cooling methods capable of maintaining temperatures above 1,300°C are required, but also the structure of the kiln capable of maintaining high temperatures and chemical experiments within the kiln during firing must be conducted simultaneously. Ultimately, while pottery can be classified as handicraft technology acquired domestically, porcelain requires the possession of scientific, i.e., advanced technology, and the ability to produce labor-intensive goods, thus representing a different dimension of scientific technology. 121 3. The Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Two Perspectives from Korea and Japan_Kyushu Ceramic Art Museum

Imitation Technology and Direct Technology Transfer of Chinese Ceramics Before the Imjin War

Transfer

Prior to the Imjin War, Japan's ceramic industry lagged behind within the Sinocentric cultural sphere. Before the 17th century, Japan had traditional kilns for producing pottery for daily life, but it lacked the high firing temperatures and kaolin possessed by China and Joseon. The limitations of Japanese pottery in imitating Chinese ceramics were evident even in their external appearance. Without direct technological influx from China, the reproduction and imitation of Chinese blue-and-white porcelain and white porcelain were likely limited to decorative elements or forms.

While earthenware, pottery, and stoneware were universally produced in various regions, including China, before the 17th century, only China knew the materials and firing methods for porcelain (Misugi Takatoshi, 2011, 11). The world's first glazed pottery was produced in China, and it is presumed that ash glaze, used in high-temperature fired ceramics, was also applied in China. The discovery of elements in excavated artifacts and kiln structures from Joseon during a similar period, showing Chinese origins, allows us to imagine the process by which glazing techniques, similar to early Chinese lead-glazed pottery, were introduced to Joseon. At that time, Goryeo's pottery was not qualitatively superior in terms of clay body strength or glaze color. After Chinese ceramics were imported into Joseon from the Yuan and Ming dynasties, they influenced the development of Joseon ceramics with new raw materials and technologies until the outbreak of the Imjin War. Chinese

122 Porcelain and blue-and-white porcelain, as examples of porcelain, were produced by China possessing superior raw materials, namely kaolin found in Gaoling Mountain near Jingdezhen, and a mixture of kaolin with highly adhesive white clay, thus having superior raw materials and mixing technology capable of withstanding higher temperatures. Consequently, Goryeo celadon, produced during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), transcended the level of Chinese imitation technology and entered a developmental phase of Goryeo-specific production. The subsequent Joseon white porcelain showed further technological advancement. The difference lies in the firing temperatures of celadon and white porcelain. While Goryeo celadon was fired around 1200°C, white porcelain required a higher firing temperature of over 1250°C to withstand the heat.

Meanwhile, unlike Goryeo during the same period, Japanese ceramics showed a developmental gap compared to Goryeo ceramics, which is evident in the fact that it remained at the level of imitation technology. Japanese Kamakura period (1185-1333) pottery clearly demonstrates imitation of Chinese ceramics, but at the same time, the limitations of imitation technology are significantly apparent in terms of delicate craftsmanship. Among these, the Seto ware excavated from Japan, although similar in form to the Southern Song (1127-1279) and Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) Jingdezhen celadon and white porcelain mae-byeong, differs greatly in glaze, firing temperature, and clay body, despite its similar shape (Bang Byung-sun, 2018, 230). In Japan's case, high-quality porcelain was supplied by imports from China, which is also seen as a reason why it was difficult to foster internal technological development (Bang Byung-sun, 2018, 230). Table 1 shows Chinese Song Dynasty ceramics and the Seto ware of Japan that imitated them. Next to it is Goryeo pottery, which Japan imported as a substitute for Chinese ceramics.

123 3. The Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Two Perspectives from Korea and Japan_Kyushu Ceramic Art Museum

<Table 1>

Celadon vase with inlaid black glaze, Celadon vase with inlaid floral pattern, Celadon vase with inlaid peony pattern,

Seto ware, 14th century, Goryeo Dynasty,

Longquan ware, Yuan Dynasty, 14th century, Height 22.5cm, Height 24.5cm, Mouth diameter 9.4cm,

This 26cm, Aichi Prefectural Museum of Ceramics, National Museum of Korea

National Museum of Korea

Japan's Success in Ceramic Exports After the 17th Century

Prior to the Imjin War, Japan's ceramic industry lagged behind within the Sinocentric cultural sphere. Before the 17th century, Japan had traditional kilns for producing pottery for daily life, but it lacked the high firing temperatures and kaolin possessed by China and Joseon. The limitations of Japanese pottery in imitating Chinese ceramics were evident even in their external appearance. Without direct technological influx from China, the reproduction and imitation of Chinese blue-and-white porcelain and white porcelain were likely limited to decorative elements or forms.

124

Meanwhile, China had the first opportunity for global ceramic exports in the 16th century, but due to the seclusion policy during the Ming-Qing transition, ceramic production for export significantly decreased, reaching a point where it could not meet the demand of the East India Company. At this time, the East India Company learned of Japan's white porcelain production and chose Japanese white porcelain as a substitute for Chinese porcelain (Jeon Chung-jin, 2001, 84-84). This led to a surge in white porcelain production in Japan, and they created an artificial island called 'Dejima' in front of Nagasaki, a port of call for European ships. At this time, official exports by the Dutch East India Company were conducted through the port of Imari, leading to Japanese ceramics being called 'Imari ware' (Watanabe Yoshiro, 2013, 243-246).

Japan, which had not even produced white porcelain before the mid-17th century and whose imitation of Chinese ceramics was subpar, could not have been chosen as a substitute for China due to the originality of its white porcelain. Considering that Dutch merchants ordered items identical to the Chinese blue-and-white porcelain sample called 'Kraak ware,' the possession of white porcelain technology itself in Japan was significant. Did Japan, which was limited to imitating Chinese ceramics in the 16th century, acquire ceramic technology through the Joseon potters brought over during the Imjin War and achieve mass production?

The Korean Perspective: The State of Joseon Ceramic Technology Transfer During the Imjin War

In Korea, joint research between Korea and Japan on ceramics from the same period is difficult due to the nature of comparing artifacts, and much of the research has been conducted with the patriotic objective of highlighting the contributions of Joseon potters to the development of Japanese ceramics. With the exception of Bang Byung-sun's research, which analyzes the transmission of technology through artifacts from a ceramic history perspective, most studies are based on Japanese documentary sources, analyzing the circumstances and lineage of Joseon potters abducted during the Imjin War from an archaeological and historical standpoint. Focusing on Joseon potters, these studies examine the scale, composition, settlement locations in Japan, return status, and adaptation process of those forcibly relocated during the Imjin War. Meanwhile, Kim Yu-jeong's (2017) research focuses on the political and economic motivations behind the transfer of advanced technology. It argues that beyond mere consumer desire, the act itself carries political, social, and cultural significance, requiring a multi-layered analysis of the demand and supply in the ceramic industry at the time, as well as the supporting political, institutional, cultural, and material foundations. Generally, based on limited data, it is possible to indirectly infer the environmental conditions surrounding Joseon potters that enabled the transfer of 'porcelain' technology, which was cutting-edge at the time. Specifically, studies tend to examine whether Joseon potters possessed superior ceramic technology before their relocation, their settlement process in Japan, and the institutional protection that allowed them to focus on developing ceramic technology beyond mere livelihood after settlement.

Transmission of Joseon Potters' Technology and Its Conditions

Joseon captives taken to Japan during the Imjin War were primarily brought through the port of Karatsu in Saga Prefecture, Kyushu, along with kaolin (高靈土), the raw material for porcelain, known as white clay (白土). Subsequently, Joseon potters settled in various regions, mainly centered around Kyushu. With the exception of Hagi in Yamaguchi Prefecture, most of the settlement locations for Joseon potters were in Kyushu, the home regions of many daimyo (Bang Byung-sun, 2003, 32). Among these, regions where traditional Japanese ceramics developed based on kilns built by Joseon potters include Kyushu, Satsuma, Hagi, Agano, Arita, Hirado, Mikawachi, Hasami, Imari, Karatsu, and Takatori, which largely correspond to settlement areas in and around Kyushu.

126 At the time when Joseon potters established kilns, Japan's ceramic production technology was limited to firing at around 1000°C. In contrast, Joseon already possessed ceramic production technology firing at over 1200°C. Therefore, did the Joseon potters actually taken to Japan possess superior ceramic technology such as this? Bang Byung-sun's research seeks evidence through comparative analysis of artifacts from both countries during the same period. Specifically, it is inferred from potter's tools, structures, and forms necessary for high-temperature firing, which is key to porcelain technology, that Joseon potters possessed far superior ceramic technology compared to Japanese potters at the time (Bang Byung-sun, 2017). For instance, the shapes of ceramics, the forms of vertical and concave bases, and the use of kiln supports in early 16th-century Joseon-style kilns can be considered clues suggesting porcelain-level technology. In addition, the socio-institutional environment for potters, through whom ceramic technology could be transferred via apprenticeship, can be considered. For example, in the Arita region, in 1637, the system was reorganized around 13 kilns centered on Joseon potters, excluding Japanese potters (Bang Byung-sun, 2003, 268). Despite their social status as captives, the superiority of Joseon potters' ceramic technology and the societal demand for the internalization of porcelain production played a significant role.

Generally, domestic research tends to connect the origins of Joseon potters with traditional Japanese kilns. The Imjin War, which lasted for seven years from 1592 to 1598, resulted in the settlement of approximately 50,000 to 60,000 Joseon potters in the Gyeongsang, Jeolla, and Chungcheong provinces, and approximately seven major pottery production centers developed in the Kyushu region. These include the Takatori kiln in Hachisan, the Goda kiln in Jonhae, the Nakazato kiln in Dochil, Karatsu, the Mikawachi kiln of the Goryeo grandmother and Geogwan, Yi Sam-pyeong in Arita and Imari, the Fukagawa kiln of Yi Jak-gwang and Yi Gyeong brothers, Sim Su-gwan, and the Naesirokawa kiln of Park Pyeong-ui (Jo Yong-jun, 2006, 41-50). Park Pyeong-ui and Joseon potters belong to the 'Naesirokawa lineage' among the six classifications of kilns in 'Satsuma pottery' in Kagoshima: Naesirokawa lineage, Tateno lineage, Ryumonji lineage, Nishimochida lineage, Hirasa lineage, and Tanegashima lineage. The 'Tateno lineage' is linked to potter Kim Hae, and the 'Ryumonji lineage' to potter Byeon Bang-jung's Ryumonji kiln. As pointed out in Bang Byung-sun's research, the kilns used by early potters have not been sufficiently excavated, making it difficult to conclude definitively or to assume that kilns from the Kyushu region during similar periods were influenced by Joseon (Bang Byung-sun, 2011). However, among these, Kagoshima Satsuma region has relatively well-preserved old documents for Park Pyeong-ui and Sim Dang-gil. The settlement of potters in Naesirokawa and regions with weak pottery production bases, along with records of Joseon potters migrating for technology transfer, can be considered as the initial settlement phase for potters to earn a living (Bang Byung-sun, 2003, 119). In contrast, the Ryumonji

Generally, domestic research is characterized by linking the origins of Joseon potters with traditional Japanese kilns. The Imjin War, which lasted for seven years from 1592 to 1598, saw approximately 50,000 to 60,000 Joseon potters settle in the Kyushu region, leading to the development of about seven major pottery production centers. These include the Takatori kiln in Utsunomiya, the Kodai kiln in Jonai, the Nakazato kiln in Karatsu, the Mikawachi kiln associated with the 'Goryeo Grandmother' and Geogwan, Ichida and Imari's Yi Sam-pyeong, Fukagawa kiln established by Yi Jakgwang and Yi Gyeong brothers, Sim Su-gwan, and Park Pyeong-ui's Naeshirogawa kiln (Cho Yong-jun, 2006, pp. 41-50). Park Pyeong-ui and the Joseon potters belong to the 'Naeshirogawa lineage' among the six classifications of Kagoshima's 'Satsuma pottery' which denote individual kilns: Naeshirogawa lineage, Tateno lineage, Ryumonji lineage, Nishimochida lineage, Hirasa lineage, and Tanegashima lineage. The 'Tateno lineage' is linked to the potter Kim Hae, and the 'Ryumonji lineage' to the Ryumonji kiln of the potter Byeon Bang-jung. As pointed out in Bang Byeong-seon's research, the kilns used by early potters have not been sufficiently excavated, making it difficult to definitively conclude or even speculate that kilns in the Kyushu region during similar periods were influenced by Joseon (Bang Byeong-seon, 2011). However, among these, the Kagoshima Satsuma region has relatively well-preserved historical documents for potters like Park Pyeong-ui and Sim Dang-gil. The Naeshirogawa settlement potters and regions with weak ceramic production bases, coupled with records of Joseon potters migrating for technological transfer, suggest an early settlement phase where potters could sustain themselves (Bang Byeong-seon, 2003, p. 119). In contrast, Ryumonji's

128 case shows numerous ceramic artifacts that appear to have been produced by Joseon potters, primarily inferred from the production of blue-and-white porcelain and white porcelain in these kilns. However, since core technology is not evident in external appearance or form, the introduction of inlay techniques as a decorative method allows us to infer the prerequisite conditions for technology transfer, namely that Joseon potters already possessed superior ceramic technology before migrating to Japan. Specifically, Lee Eun-mi's research on the transmission of blue-and-white techniques between Korea and Japan suggests that the Joseon-style blue-and-white porcelain from the transitional period before the production of Japanese blue-and-white, around the 1620s, was likely influenced by Joseon potters (Lee Eun-mi, 2011). Furthermore, Bang Byung-sun's research indicates that while kilns considered to be operated by Joseon artisans primarily produced blue-and-white porcelain and white porcelain, there are also many instances of producing white-bodied celadon, unique to Joseon, and buncheong ware (Bang Byung-sun, 2003). In fact, given the prevalence of inlay techniques in Joseon from the mid-16th century and records of celadon in court documents from the early 17th century, it is highly probable that abducted artisans also had experience with inlay techniques and celadon production (Bang Byung-sun, 2003, 267). Reports indicating that the glaze composition of celadon excavated here is similar to that of Goryeo celadon support this finding (Bang Byung-sun, 2018, 267).

Lee Mi-sook's research focuses on analyzing detailed data, considering the production environment along with ceramic tools and raw materials as important factors for technology transfer (Lee Mi-sook, 2011). The environmental conditions that enabled the implementation of porcelain production technology in Japan using techniques learned in Joseon are crucial clues. The forced relocation of Joseon potters was a technological competition, and Japan's desire for technological advancement, driven by the political and cultural significance of tea bowls for the Japanese upper class and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, led to technology transfer under asymmetrical social status conditions. Therefore, the sustainability of porcelain technology transfer depends heavily on the political and institutional environment and economic demand of the recipient country. In particular, the transfer of technology between nations requires not only material resources for production but also political and institutional support for experimental research of ceramic technology within Japan. The transformation occurred because Japan, rather than being a mere recipient of ceramic technology and culture, became a direct producer, and the way Joseon potters' asymmetrical status in Japan was managed was key (Kim Yu-jeong, 2017, 20). The fact that they were able to settle, build kilns, and engage in pottery production suggests that there was significant support and protection for superior Joseon potters' ceramic technology due to the high social value placed on ceramic technology in Japan. While some began pottery activities for livelihood, such as supplying ceramics in lieu of stipends, records show that exceptionally skilled Joseon potters received land to build kilns, and Japanese potters sought to learn from them, indicating sustained regional support for ceramic production.

Discovery of Porcelain Raw Materials and Development of Firing Technology by Joseon Potters

130 Abducted Joseon potters did not initially produce blue-and-white porcelain in Japan. In the early stages, due to livelihood or circumstances, they moved around and are believed to have produced items closer to buncheong ware or coarse white pottery (Bang Byung-sun, 2017, 114). The main products were primarily Joseon-style bowls, plates, cups, and vases, particularly those suitable for use as tea bowls, which were popular in Japan (Bang Byung-sun, 2017, 115). The decisive factor that enabled the production of celadon and white porcelain in Japan was Yi Sam-pyeong's discovery of a white porcelain deposit. With the discovery of white clay in the white porcelain deposit, the raw material for porcelain could be obtained within Japan for the first time. By adding mixed raw materials to the white clay, the key raw material capable of maintaining shape and color at high firing temperatures could be continuously supplied within Japan. Yi Sam-pyeong discovered white clay suitable for porcelain raw materials at Izumiyama in Arita. Evidence for this includes a copy of a document submitted by Yi Sam-pyeong to the Taku family, titled 'Gaku' (覺), a document from Toyotomi Hideyoshi to the lord of Arita at the time, and documents recorded by his descendants, which examine Yi Sam-pyeong's achievement in discovering the white porcelain deposit in Arita. Under the institutional protection provided by the lord of Arita, Yi Sam-pyeong was able to focus on ceramic experiments, including kiln construction and white porcelain production. At that time, Japanese daimyo held monopolies on ceramic production within their domains, and building kilns and producing ceramics in their territories was important for their political standing. Therefore, Joseon potters were able to build kilns and fire ceramics under the special protection and control of Kyushu and various domains, beyond the demand for ceramic technology among the upper class (Woo Dong-gyu, 1987, 198-199). 131 3. The Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Two Perspectives from Korea and Japan_Kyushu Ceramic Art Museum

The period when porcelain production began in Japan, from the 1610s, is closely related to Yi Sam-pyeong's relocation to Arita, one of the three major ceramic villages in Kyushu, Japan, along with Imari and Karatsu. While there are various theories regarding how Yi Sam-pyeong discovered the white porcelain deposit at Izumiyama in Arita, the record in 'Gaku' states that Taku Nagatono-no-kami, a minor lord of the Hizen domain, brought Yi Sam-pyeong, and under his supervision, ceramics were produced. Yi Sam-pyeong discovered porcelain stone (陶石), also known as white porcelain stone (白瓷石), the raw material for porcelain, at Izumiyama in the Arita region. He then moved to Arita with 18 potters and produced the first white porcelain in 1616. Gu Tae-hoon's research details the process by which Yi Sam-pyeong discovered kaolin for porcelain production at the time (Gu Tae-hoon, 2008). It is believed that Yi Sam-pyeong was among the approximately 150 people abducted by Nabeshima Naoshige, the lord of the Hizen domain, who was known for abducting many Joseon potters during the Jeongyu War. During this process, Naoshige brought not only Joseon potters but also kaolin, the clay needed for porcelain production, loaded onto ships, in quantities sufficient for Joseon potters to produce ceramics for several years (Seong Si-hong, 2018, 9). However, after about seven to eight years, the kaolin brought from Joseon began to run out, and Naoshige ordered Yi Sam-pyeong to find the clay needed for porcelain production. Yi Sam-pyeong wandered for over 20 years searching for white clay but could not find high-quality clay like that used in Joseon, forcing him to move from place to place. Eventually, he discovered porcelain stone, the raw material for porcelain, at Izumiyama in Arita, and moved to this region.

132 After moving to this region, he built a new kiln and was able to reproduce Joseon white porcelain in Japan using white clay (Gu Tae-hoon, 2008, 191). The foundational work, including Yi Sam-pyeong's discovery of white clay, laid the groundwork for the full-scale production of porcelain in Japan. Yi Sam-pyeong's fame as a revered potter in Japan stems from the fact that white porcelain technology was transmitted beyond the Arita region, centered around the figure of Yi Sam-pyeong. It is said that over 1,000 Joseon people were engaged in porcelain production in the Arita region, and potters from all over the country migrated to learn white porcelain technology from Yi Sam-pyeong. Subsequently, in 1631, the Hizen domain began to establish a mass production system. While there is no direct evidence linking this to Yi Sam-pyeong's transmission of white porcelain technology, the research by Jo Young-jun and Lee Mi-sook mentions the Nabeshima lord's policies of protection and encouragement for the ceramic industry as indirect evidence that enabled the establishment of a production system in Arita beyond Yi Sam-pyeong's discovery of white clay (Jo Young-jun, 2016; Lee Mi-sook, 2013). At that time, the Nabeshima lord, to encourage porcelain production, appointed Yi Sam-pyeong to the position of manager and supervisor of the porcelain stone quarry in 1624, strengthening quarry management and giving special preferential treatment to the 'sagi-jang' (potters) from Joseon (Lee Mi-sook, 2018, 2-5-206). Furthermore, the Hizen domain itself implemented planned management to protect ceramic technology, restricting the sale of products made in Arita to Imari or prohibiting external purchases. The institutional efforts of the Hizen domain continued so that Yi Sam-pyeong's discovery of white clay could lead to the export of ceramics made in Arita through the port of Imari, located 12 km away.

133 3. The Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Two Perspectives from Korea and Japan_Kyushu Ceramic Art Museum

[Figure 1] Part of the Korea-Japan Exchange Exhibition at the Nagoya Castle Museum in Japan

explaining that Yi Sam-pyeong's ceramic technology influenced the development of Imari ware.

On the left is the creation of Japanese porcelain by Yi Sam-pyeong,

and on the right is a photograph of Yi Sam-pyeong's tombstone, mentioning his achievements.

134

[Figure 2] Part of the Korea-Japan Exchange Exhibition at the Nagoya Castle Museum in Japan, explaining that Buncheong ware, representative of the Joseon Dynasty (15th-16th centuries), influenced the development of ceramics in Kyushu after the Imjin War.

Buncheong ware, representative of the era (15th-16th centuries), and the post-Imjin War Kyushu

135 3. The Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Two Perspectives from Korea and Japan_Kyushu Ceramic Art Museum

[Figure 3] Arita porcelain before and after the development of its own technology (left pottery) and its own

production, listing the development of Hizen pottery by period.

According to Lee Eun-mi's research, the mass production system of porcelain was actually established through the transmission of firing technology by Joseon potters in Arita and changes in Joseon-style kiln structures, leading to the transfer of kiln technology (Lee Eun-mi, 2011). Lee Mi-sook's research specifically points out that Joseon potters directly participated in kiln operations, changing Japanese pottery kilns to Joseon-style multi-chambered climbing kilns, thereby contributing to the creation of an opportunity to fire high-fired porcelain (Lee Mi-sook, 2018, p. 236). In 1637, Japanese potters were expelled and replaced by Joseon potters, leading to a reorganization of the pottery production system centered around Yi Sam-pyeong's Imari kiln.

136 This led to changes in Japanese ceramics, enabling the establishment of a production system. Four Imari kilns and seven Arita kilns were abolished and integrated into 13 Arita kilns, shifting the focus to Arita porcelain production. The seven abolished kilns were kilns that also fired Karatsu pottery, representing the early stages of porcelain development. Karatsu pottery disappeared from the Arita region, and a production system centered on porcelain was established (Lee Mi-sook, 2008, p. 91). Furthermore, after the 17th century, kiln structures changed to Joseon-style, with multi-chambered climbing kilns being constructed. The climbing kiln structure was entirely different from the semi-underground structure of Mino kilns, offering superior thermal efficiency and enabling mass production. Evidence for this includes the similarity between the kiln stilts excavated from Arita sites and the fire-resistant stilts commonly used in Jeolla and Gyeongsang provinces. These sites suggest a method used to lower the cost of pottery by firing large quantities of mass-produced ceramics stacked together in a single firing (Lee Mi-sook, 2010, p. 242). Additionally, kiln tools such as saggars and kiln props are similar to Joseon styles, and the forming tools used in pottery production also show Joseon influence, leading to the development of Joseon-style soft-paste white porcelain, inlaid celadon, and underglaze painted stoneware from around 1610.

Since the origin of Japan's first porcelain technology is attributed to the Joseon potter Yi Sam-pyeong, many studies focus on various theories surrounding Yi Sam-pyeong and Japanese literature. The 'Arita ware' from the Imari region, from which Japan first began exporting porcelain to Europe, is inferred to have been based on the discovery of porcelain raw materials by Joseon potter Yi Sam-pyeong, leading to the establishment of a mass production system for porcelain exports through the initial production of white porcelain. Contrary to previous research, Bang Byung-sun's study aims to understand Yi Sam-pyeong's achievements based on the style and technology of ceramic artifacts (Bang Byung-sun, 2010). Bang Byung-sun's research examines Yi Sam-pyeong's place of origin and, with the excavation of kilns in Korea, naturally focuses on the potential connection between Yi Sam-pyeong and the pottery techniques of the Gongju region (Bang Byung-sun, 2010, p. 270). While it is difficult to establish a clear causal relationship for technology transfer, the influence of Joseon technology is acknowledged. In contrast, Japanese academia considers the influence of Joseon technology to be weak due to chronological discrepancies in Joseon-influenced ceramics excavated from Japanese kilns, suggesting that external demand changes forced Japanese ceramics to follow Ming dynasty styles in terms of patterns and shapes rather than Joseon styles (Bang Byung-sun, 2010, p. 267). From the 18th century onwards, underglaze painted stoneware and inlaid stoneware imported from Joseon were perceived as high-quality goods by the Japanese. This preference led to the continued production of these wares in Japan, even after their production ceased in Joseon, driven by a nostalgic taste. Consequently, Joseon potters were compelled to produce ceramics for the Japanese market that were over a century behind Joseon's contemporary styles to meet Japanese demand and requirements. Furthermore, in blue-and-white porcelain, the imitation of Ming dynasty wares was more prevalent than Joseon-style patterns or shapes, following Chinese and Japanese styles. Even when Joseon potters participated in kiln construction, the style was Chinese. Therefore, Korean research, from the perspective of the ceramic exchange history between the two countries, compares the ceramic styles of both nations.

138 In comparison with contemporary production styles, it appears that abducted Joseon potters adopted Japanese styles rather than Joseon styles. This suggests the necessity of understanding contemporary artifact comparisons within the flow of Japanese history.

Joseon Potters and Satsuma Region Ceramics

The Satsuma region was where the largest number of Joseon potters, brought over during the Imjin War, were concentrated. Consequently, the origins of Satsuma region ceramics are often traced back to Joseon potters. The approximately 70 Joseon potters brought over by Shimazu Yoshihiro dispersed to various locations in Satsuma to establish kilns (Shin Hye-won, 2007, p. 88). Therefore, early Satsuma ceramics often exhibit Joseon styles. Domestic research connects these potters to the generals who captured them, their places of origin in Joseon, and the kilns established in the Satsuma region. Notably, among the Satsuma ceramic lineages, Japanese literature and records frequently mention Park Pyeong-ui and Shim Dang-gil. In contrast, there is very little specific research on the concrete activities of Joseon potters in Kimhae, Tate-no, Hassen's Takatori, Jonhae's Agano, and Byeon Bang-jung's Ryumonji. Nevertheless, the systematic management and support provided by the Satsuma feudal lord for the activities of Joseon potters at that time suggest that individuals like Park Pyeong-ui and Shim Dang-gil, who are well-documented in Japanese government and various official documents, were able to dedicate themselves to technology transfer.

139 3. Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Korean and Japanese Perspectives_Kyushu Ceramic Museum

Shim Dang-gil and Park Pyeong-ui, Joseon potters abducted during the Imjin War, like Yi Sam-pyeong, continued the development of porcelain technology through the discovery of white clay, the raw material for porcelain. Shin Hye-won and Bang Byung-sun, in particular, have traced the activities of Joseon potters abducted to 'Satsuma' in Kagoshima Prefecture based on Japanese records, assessing the influence on porcelain technology (Bang Byung-sun, 2010; Bang Byung-sun, 2007). Park Pyeong-ui, captured by his daimyo, landed at Kushikino-shimabira (串木野島平) and established Kushikino-yo, the first kiln in Satsuma, the following year. Initially, he produced daily life ceramics with 42 potters, but full-scale pottery production can be considered to have begun after relocating to Naeshiro-gawa in 1603. The Joseon potters who arrived in Satsuma produced ceramics in Kushikino and Shimabira using white clay brought from their hometowns, which were called Hibakaride (火計り手). Hibakaride was made using Joseon soil and techniques, with only the firing process being Japanese. This indicates that Joseon potters possessed the technology to make porcelain and searched for raw materials in Japan, using the white clay brought from Joseon as a reference. However, during this period, they worked under the patronage of the feudal lord, producing daily life ceramics for subsistence, with limited opportunities for management or sponsorship, and few chances to learn pottery techniques elsewhere (Shin Hye-won, 2007, p. 199). It was not possible to immediately attempt advanced porcelain techniques in Japan.

140

[Figure 4] White Glazed Lotus Leaf Tea Bowl, Shiro-Satsuma, Hibakaride,

17th century, diameter 14.4cm, height 8.9cm, Tokyo National Museum.

The discovery of white clay in Satsuma and the opportunity to produce white Satsuma ware were permitted by the Satsuma feudal lord. The characteristics of ceramics produced in Satsuma are divided into Kuro-Satsuma (black Satsuma), produced under the supervision of the feudal lord, and Shiro-Satsuma (white Satsuma), mainly supplied to the general public. From the 18th century onwards, black Satsuma and white Satsuma ceramics became visually distinguishable, with white Satsuma requiring the feudal lord's permission for production (Shin Hye-won, 2007, p. 201). Park Pyeong-ui, who discovered white clay and produced white Satsuma, was also supported by the Satsuma feudal lord, as indicated by records from Keicho 3 (1598). Shimazu Yoshihiro, the Satsuma feudal lord, ordered the naturalized Joseon potter Park Pyeong-ui and others to build a kiln in Naeshiro-gawa, Hioki-gun (日置郡), and granted them Japanese names and titles to encourage continued ceramic production (Bang Byung-sun, 2017, pp. 125-126). Under the patronage of the feudal lord, Park Pyeong-ui discovered white clay in Kasada, built a kiln in Naeshiro-gawa Village (成川村), and found oak for glaze in Kurino (栗野), ultimately succeeding in producing white porcelain (Bang Byung-sun, 2017, p. 126).

141 3. Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Korean and Japanese Perspectives_Kyushu Ceramic Museum

Among the Satsuma ceramic lineages, the first generation Shim Dang-gil also continued his pottery activities by producing and dedicating ceramics to the feudal lord in exchange for a stipend. Naeshiro-gawa ware, known as a major type of Satsuma pottery, was produced by the first generation Shim Dang-gil, a Joseon potter abducted during the Second Imjin War at the Battle of Namwon Fortress and one of 43 prisoners brought to this area. Shim Dang-gil also discovered white clay in volcanic ash and began firing pottery, marking the beginning of white porcelain in the Satsuma region, which became the origin of white Satsuma ware (Lee Sang-gyun, 1999, p. 161).

Furthermore, there are records indicating that Satsuma's lord, Yoshihiro, brought Joseon potters to Satsuma to produce ceramics and learn pottery techniques from other regions of Japan, integrating them with Joseon ceramic technology (Lee Mi-sook, 2011, p. 193). According to the 'Chronicle of Ceramic History and Potter Traditions of Prefectures' compiled by the Japanese government in 1886 (Meiji 19) and submitted by each prefecture,

“In the history of Satsuma ceramics, Shimazu

Yoshihiro (島津義弘) is considered paramount, followed by the Joseon potter (Kimhae),

Park Pyeong-ui (朴平意) (Shim Soo-gwan, 1975, p. 50).” Lee Mi-sook's research confirms the activities of Joseon potters in the Satsuma region through Japanese historical materials, with records of well-known figures such as Kimhae and Park Pyeong-ui, who were brought to the Satsuma region.

142 (Lee Mi-sook, 2011). Kimhae, known for his excellent pottery skills, was heavily influenced by the feudal lord in his activities and pottery techniques. It appears that he established new kilns in different locations according to the lord's movements and produced ceramics. It is estimated that Kimhae established the Utoyo (宇都窯) kiln around 1601-1602, following the Battle of Sekigahara by Toyotomi Hideyoshi around 1600. Under the lord's orders, he traveled to Seto in Owari (尾張) in 1602 to learn pottery techniques and returned five years later to fire ceramics incorporating the techniques learned in Seto (Lee Mi-sook, 2011, p. 195). This background is said to reflect the lord's tastes, and it appears that in addition to Joseon pottery-making methods, techniques from Hizen (肥前), Seto (瀨戶), and Kyoto (京都) were incorporated, leading to further diverse development (Lee Mi-sook, 2011, p. 196).

The ceramics produced during this period likely included Hibakaride (火計り手), Shiro-Satsuma-de (白薩摩手), Nishiki-de (錦手), Kinran-de (金襴手), blue-and-white porcelain (染付白磁), celadon (靑磁), Ruri-de (瑠璃手), Sokoroku-de (宋胡錄手), and Mishima-de (三島手), which were likely forms that combined Japanese techniques with Joseon white porcelain technology. Due to the transitional period of political change within the Japanese archipelago for seven years, Joseon potters were unprotected for about seven years. Afterward, for their livelihood, they began producing general-purpose ceramics by supplying them to the feudal lord in lieu of a stipend. During this period, research and investigation into porcelain technology were not possible. Later, when policies and tastes demanded the production of high-quality ceramics for the ruling class, opportunities arose to find clay similar to Joseon white clay and develop glazes (Lee Mi-sook, 2011, p. 160). Within Japan, with protection, Joseon potters were able to easily find similar porcelain raw materials in various regions of Japan based on the white clay brought from Joseon. Subsequently, experimental research began in earnest on the blending of raw materials using Japanese soil and firing temperatures within the kiln. Sequentially, by 1603, raw materials for clay and glaze, and fuel were secured. A kiln opened in 1605, and it was not until 1623 that Park Pyeong-ui succeeded in producing white porcelain. In 1626, technical dispatch occurred, sending potters to acquire skills, and upon their return, they established the foundation for white porcelain production (Lee Mi-sook, 2011, p. 163). Similar to the records of Yi Sam-pyeong, Japanese potters came to the Imari region to learn pottery techniques, and in the Satsuma region, there was also a process of assimilation where Joseon potters learned Japanese pottery techniques. Lee Sang-gyun's research suggests that the technology of Joseon potters in the Satsuma region influenced Japanese Satsuma ceramics and Kyoto ceramics (Lee Sang-gyun, 1999). The ceramic artifacts produced by Joseon potters also show a change from the early excavated artifacts to a mixed style incorporating Japanese pottery techniques. The clay and porcelain brought from Joseon, along with their production techniques and firing methods, were purely Joseon methods (Lee Mi-sook, 2011, p. 164). However, later artifacts confirm the use of mixed Joseon and Japanese pottery techniques. For example, ceramic artifacts such as tea bowls made by Kimhae in 1608 after returning from technical dispatch show a combination of original Joseon methods with Japanese pottery techniques (Lee Mi-sook, 2011, p. 164).

143 3. Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Korean and Japanese Perspectives_Kyushu Ceramic Museum

Japanese Perspective: Introduction of Joseon Ceramic Technology during the Imjin War

Japanese research begins with the premise that ceramic exchange between the two countries existed even before the Imjin War, and infers the influence of Joseon ceramics. The Imjin War, referred to as the 'Pottery War' in Japanese ceramic history, is not viewed as a turning point but rather as a period before and after which the influence of Joseon potters can be understood through artifacts. On the other hand, with detailed examination of Japanese ceramics from a ceramic history perspective, pottery techniques showing Joseon influence began to appear after the Imjin War. In particular, from the 1850s onwards, research comparing Joseon and Hizen pottery, which is concentrated in the northwestern part of Saga Prefecture, Kyushu, where many Joseon-influenced artifacts are excavated, has yielded results. Through ceramic history and Korean-Japanese relations approaches, some joint research between Korea and Japan has been conducted, providing opportunities to examine not only the external appearance of Korean and Japanese ceramics but also the transfer of technology in detail. Among these, the research by Katayama Mabi and Honda Mabi reconfirms how the Japanese academic community assesses the possibility of Joseon-influenced technology through artifact comparison and examines the traces of direct technology transfer by Joseon potters (Katayama Mabi, 2005; Honda Mabi, 2003). Therefore, the study aims to identify the form of direct technology transfer by Joseon potters through artifacts. On the other hand, it reconstructs the process of Yi Sam-pyeong's white porcelain technology being reproduced in Japan through local documents, ancient texts, and historical data from the Imari area.

145 3. Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Korean and Japanese Perspectives_Kyushu Ceramic Museum

Influence of Joseon Technology through Ceramic Artifact Comparison

Looking at the influence relationship between Joseon ceramics and the Hizen region before the Imjin War, when porcelain was not yet produced, it generally began to appear in the 1580s and disappeared after the 1650s. Hizen pottery was influenced by Joseon potters who crossed over during the Imjin War, and after the excavation of Hizen kilns, this influence is evident not only in the Hizen region but also in pottery kilns in other Kyushu regions (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 1). The influence of Joseon firing technology on Hizen pottery can be seen in the kiln structure and kiln tools. After the 1650s, the technology and style of kilns in Fujian Province, China, are considered to have had a strong influence, likely because Chinese kiln structures were suited for mass production systems. In kilns from the 1610s, little influence of Joseon pottery can be observed, with influences becoming apparent from kilns starting in 1615. Therefore, the study specifically examines the influence of Joseon pottery from the time of porcelain's emergence around 1616.

The aspects that suggest direct technology transfer by Joseon potters include kiln structure, forming methods, and kiln tools. These are difficult to imitate without being a technician, thus serving as clear evidence of technology transmission through human migration. According to Katayama Mabi's research, porcelain began to be excavated in the Hizen region in earnest after the Joseon invasion around 1610, with types and kilns very similar to Joseon white porcelain appearing (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 161).

146 Among the ceramic technologies, changing the kiln structure is a difficult technique. Comparing the traditional Japanese kiln structures common before the 16th century with the kilns of Hizen pottery reveals points that can be attributed to the influence of Joseon potters. According to Honda Mabi's research, traditional Japanese kilns did not have internal divisions, yet kilns with divisions began to appear in Japan for the first time during this period (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 160). This itself represents a major technological revolution in Japanese ceramic history. Considering that internal development was difficult in Japan at that time, it is plausible that this technological revolution was brought about by the introduction of external technology. Furthermore, comparing with artifacts from Goryeo pottery kilns in Korea, the structures of kilns frequently found in the late 15th and early 16th centuries in Korea, such as those at the Sunjiri ruins, suggest a high probability that similar technologies were transmitted from Joseon Dynasty pottery kilns. Specifically, examining the accessories of pottery kilns suggests a connection where pottery kilns in the Gyeongsang Province region influenced Hizen pottery kilns. Additionally, Honda Mabi's research indicates that the fire-wall facilities in kiln structures also appear to be elements closer to 17th-century Joseon porcelain kilns (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 70). This structure was later improved and became a commonly used kiln structure in later Hizen pottery.

In the case of kiln tools, they are also difficult to imitate and produce without being a kiln construction technician. Honda Mabi's research identifies shell-shaped stilts and clay-formed stilts used to prevent fired vessels from sticking together as being of Joseon origin (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 72). The triangular stilts used to maintain the unique shape of the vessel and wooden stilts are forms not found in medieval Japanese pottery, which serves as evidence. Particularly, shell-shaped stilts are unknown in medieval Japan or even in Chinese ceramics, and examples of shell-shaped stilts can be found in 16th-century Sunjiri kilns, suggesting direct technology introduction. Chronologically, pottery of the Sunjiri kiln type is excavated from 1580-1598 and is estimated to have been produced until the late 16th century. This implies that technicians crossed over during this period and constructed kilns of the Sunjiri type. In the case of clay-formed stilts, although they are a type not found in medieval Japanese pottery, their basic concept of forming stilts from clay is clearly derived from the influence of Joseon ceramic technology, even if the direct influence relationship is uncertain due to chronological considerations. In terms of forming methods, both Japanese wheel throwing and foot trimming were done clockwise, whereas in Joseon, methods like rotating the wheel with the foot appeared, suggesting Joseon-influenced technology (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 95). Not only in style, but Katayama Mabi also commonly mentions the technique of shaping the rim by hand, which appears to be a direct implementation of Joseon ceramic technology in Japan, suggesting a high probability that potters created it (Honda Mabi, 2003, pp. 150-151). In other words, the high-temperature firing technology required for firing porcelain involves physical techniques such as kiln structure and kiln tools. The excavation of forms different from existing Japanese kilns in this regard provides direct evidence of technology transfer by Joseon potters.

148

Joseon Ceramic Technology and the Flourishing of Ming Dynasty Pottery Techniques

The period when the technological influence of Joseon potters can be directly observed is around 1610, suggesting that it took about a decade for Joseon potters to adapt, settle, and dedicate themselves to technological development after their relocation. Considering the artifacts and the changes in demand in the Japanese ceramic market at the time, the 1610s also coincide with the emergence of white porcelain. Furthermore, Honda Mabi speculates that the reduction in blue-and-white porcelain exported due to Ming China's maritime ban policy from 1593-1597 led to an increased demand for blue-and-white porcelain in Japan (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 161). Transitional stoneware leading to blue-and-white porcelain also appears during the period between the fall of the Ming and the establishment of the Qing. Kurokami Shutendo's writings suggest that Japan's expectations for white porcelain were high during the initial process of Yi Sam-pyeong's production of white porcelain in Japan, implying that Joseon potters may have adapted to Japanese demands rather than a complete break in direct technology transfer from Joseon. From the 1930s onwards, Chinese porcelain was widely distributed in the Japanese domestic market, leading to a shift towards mass production. Honda Mabi suggests that Joseon-style kilns were deemed unsuitable for the Japanese context (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 5). Katayama Mabi also states that with the shift to mass production, Joseon white porcelain styles completely disappeared from Hizen pottery after the 1650s, and artifacts showing the influence of Southern Chinese technology are frequently excavated (Katayama Mabi, 2005, p. 162). In other words, after 1650, the influence of Joseon ceramic technology in Hizen pottery was limited to the form of earthen kilns, with its products completely disappearing.

In the case of porcelain, while it is commonly pointed out that traces of Joseon pottery remain during the transition to blue-and-white porcelain, the influence is considered weak. In the 1610s, when white porcelain began to be produced in earnest, Japanese records indicate that Joseon potters relocated during the Imjin War settled and were divided into three groups: kilns, blue-and-white porcelain, and white porcelain, and engaged in production. Katayama Mabi's research also identifies some aspects that appear to be surface-level remnants in some white porcelain artifacts from 1610-1650 as soft-paste white porcelain (Katayama Mabi, 2005, p. 163). This mentions the possibility of a weak influence from soft-paste white porcelain produced in southern Korea. While soft-paste porcelain excavated in Japan around the late 16th century is close to early Joseon soft-paste porcelain, direct influence is difficult to confirm, although imitation of style can be inferred. However, considering the difficulty of independent development in refining clay and firing at the time, it suggests the influence of porcelain technology evident in the ceramics. This is because Katayama Mabi's writings suggest that some white porcelain artifacts were produced during the transition to blue-and-white porcelain, resulting in new styles of pottery (Katayama Mabi, 2005, p. 166). Therefore, the use of fire-resistant clay stilts on the kiln floor, as well as the overall kiln structure, indicates the influence of Joseon pottery (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 54). However, soon after, with the full-scale production of blue-and-white porcelain, Joseon-influenced traces became difficult to find even on the surface of artifacts excavated from the 1630s onwards.

150 onwards. The blue-and-white porcelain produced at this time is closely related to Ming dynasty blue-and-white porcelain in terms of style, rather than Joseon, as it is presumed that the saggars were not of Joseon technology. From around 1650, fire-resistant clay stilts completely disappeared, and a new method of firing using 'pins' called 'hari' emerged, which suited the style of Ming dynasty blue-and-white porcelain. Kurokami Shutendo's writings also describe attempts to modify white porcelain by introducing Ming dynasty ceramic technology, depicting the introduction of thick ring-shaped support technology by Japanese potters who learned ceramic technology from Ming China (Kurokami Shutendo, 2015).

Honda Mabi cites the clay composition and forming techniques as evidence. The calcium content in the clay is less than 10% in Ming dynasty porcelain, 7-8% in Hizen porcelain, and about 10-13% in Joseon white porcelain (Honda Mabi, 2003, p. 187). This means that the composition of Hizen porcelain is closer to that of Ming dynasty porcelain, suggesting that Yi Sam-pyeong and other technicians, when searching for suitable clay, had Ming dynasty technology in mind. Furthermore, in terms of forming techniques, while the wheel throwing for blue-and-white porcelain maintains Joseon-style traditions, the molds are presumed to be from Ming China, but some Joseon techniques, such as the use of fire-resistant clay stilts, are still presumed to exist. Therefore, Joseon white porcelain technology is considered to have declined over a very short period of about 20 years. After this period, even supports that appear to be of Joseon technology disappeared, as they did not match the style of Ming dynasty blue-and-white porcelain, suggesting they were no longer used. However, it is believed that although Hizen blue-and-white porcelain developed based on Ming dynasty technology, the technicians were Joseon potters. This is supported by the fact that in 1637, Japanese potters requested the expulsion of Joseon artisans who were imitating their ceramics, and the kilns operated by the Japanese were all abolished. Consequently, although direct technology transfer by Joseon potters is not found in artifacts after the blue-and-white porcelain period, it is presumed that Joseon potters' technology continued in a form that was not Joseon-style, in response to changes in domestic demand in Japan.

Aspects of Technology Transfer through the Ceramic Activities of Joseon Potters

Japanese academic research has not extensively explored the origins, travel processes, and pottery activities of Joseon potters. This is partly due to the scarcity of relevant documentary materials within Japan, and the difficulty in identifying individuals presumed to be Joseon potters through ancient documents. Kurokami Shutendo's research reconstructs the pottery activities of Yi Sam-pyeong and Joseon potters during the Imjin and Jeongyu Wars, based on research institutions and historical records (Kurokami Shutendo, 2015). Notably, it connects specific events with the political situation in Japan at the time and the ceramic policies of feudal lords to the development of porcelain technology, based on materials from archives and local history museums in Fukuoka, Kumamoto, and Nagasaki prefectures. While there are fictional elements in the narrative, the aspects of pottery techniques and technology, such as Yi Sam-pyeong and Joseon potters experimenting to reproduce the porcelain technology learned in Joseon in Japan, and the transmission of techniques among potters, are based on facts.

152 The content of the pottery activities and ceramic technology of Joseon potters mentioned in Kurokami Shutendo's writings can be summarized as follows. The Joseon potters who first settled in the village of Okawano in Imari City, Saga Prefecture, Kyushu, began producing pottery in 1593. Under the feudal lord's patronage, several kilns were established, and they were able to produce various daily life wares. Subsequently, due to an incident of land confiscation, the Joseon potters were scattered. During this period, the tea ceremony became a symbol of the culture of the Japanese upper class, and the competition among all daimyo nationwide to present gifts to Tokugawa led to a domestic political situation that provided potters with opportunities to continue their ceramic activities in various regions. The Joseon potters proposed the development of unique regional tea utensils to the Nabeshima daimyo, receiving land to establish kilns and leading to efforts to create superior ceramics. The Joseon potters established kilns in the Fujinokawachi region, rich in pottery clay, and their production technology, including inlay and iron-decorated techniques, as well as the application of two types of glazes, improved dramatically.

The following summarizes the activities and ceramic techniques of Joseon potters as described in Kurokami Shuten's writings. The Joseon potters who first settled in the village of Okawano, located in Imari City, Saga Prefecture, Kyushu, began to flourish in pottery making in 1593. They were permitted by the lord to establish several kilns and were able to fire their own daily wares. Subsequently, due to an incident involving confiscation of territory, the Joseon potters were dispersed. During this period, the tea ceremony became a symbol of the culture of the Japanese upper class, and a domestic political situation, characterized by competition among all daimyo nationwide to present gifts to the Tokugawa shogunate, provided potters with opportunities to continue their ceramic activities in various regions. When the Joseon potters proposed the development of unique regional tea utensils to the Nabeshima daimyo, they were granted land to build kilns, which led to efforts to create superior ceramics. The Joseon potters established kilns in the Fujinokawachi region, which was rich in clay suitable for pottery. Subsequently, production techniques, such as inlay and iron-painted decorative techniques, as well as the application of two types of glazes, saw a dramatic improvement.

In the process of early pottery production at the Okono-shi kiln, Yi Sam-pyeong sought to reproduce Joseon-style pottery techniques, which differed from the existing Japanese pottery methods. He discovered pottery clay near the kiln and mixed glazes, using ash from soil rather than solely ash from straw and tree bark. Yi Sam-pyeong began to raise the temperature in the kiln using the 'reduction firing' method. He provided detailed instructions on the amount of firewood required and assigned roles for managing the opening and closing of the firing chamber to maintain temperature and adding firewood. Yi Sam-pyeong's discovery of kaolin was the result of repeated experimental processes aimed at finding the right soil and glaze. While exploring the southern mountains of the soft-paste porcelain kiln area, Yi Sam-pyeong discovered soft-paste clay and glaze in a rock vein that was easily breakable. Similar to the point that Joseon soft-paste porcelain appeared from 1610 in Kyushu pottery, as noted in previous research, it is not precisely known whether this soft-paste clay and glaze were directly found by Yi Sam-pyeong, but it reflects that the initial soil and glaze were different from existing Japanese pottery.

A significant number of tea bowls were exported to Japan during the Imjin War, and orders for tea bowls from Japan continued thereafter. In Japan, abducted Joseon potters imitated and produced Goryeo tea bowls, further popularizing them. From around 1602, Joseon potters' interest in 'Joseon Karatsu' grew, and competition among political factions arose over 'Goryeo celadon.' Even within the military government, which transitioned from Toyotomi to Tokugawa Ieyasu and Hidetada, the tea ceremony remained important. Warriors of the Toyotomi faction sought to regain favor by presenting 'Goryeo celadon' tea utensils to Tokugawa, engaging in a competitive acquisition. Consequently, 'buncheong ware' fired by Yi Sam-pyeong in Joseon was introduced in Japan as 'Joseon Karatsu,' leading to interest in Joseon pottery techniques. In response, Yi Sam-pyeong received requests for 'Joseon Karatsu' and 'white porcelain' from the castle. Dissatisfied with the 'iron-decorated ware' made by Ham'an potters, they desired white porcelain. Yi Sam-pyeong had previously fired white and blue porcelain at the Nanwon Manboksa Temple, so he continued to search for suitable stones. To find white clay, Yi Sam-pyeong obtained permission to relocate under the condition of providing rice and pottery as tribute and decided to work with Joseon potters from Yangsan and Gu-po. Here, they informed Yi Sam-pyeong about the layered kiln structure that could increase firing temperature.

154 Yi Sam-pyeong, with his experience in firing white porcelain, devised a method to crush the rock after discovering white porcelain stone. Unlike the brittle clay lumps of white porcelain stone fired at the Namwon Manboksa pottery kiln in Joseon, this was a hard rock, so he devised a method to crush it using a water mill. The first white porcelain fired by Yi Sam-pyeong was not perfectly white, so he experimented with several types of glazes, trying combinations of ash from straw, tree bark, and mud, as well as ash lye. Yi Sam-pyeong decided to fire the test-fired white porcelain stone in earnest and relocated to Arita village.

Upon arriving in Arita, Yi Sam-pyeong and other Joseon potters went on expeditions to procure firewood and glaze materials, continuing experiments to ensure the pottery could withstand high temperatures. Finally, on June 1, 1616, he discovered white porcelain stone. Subsequently, a system to support porcelain production was established, and the process of crushing the stone, a barrier to porcelain production, was carried out. They began producing porcelain by reducing the use of dark glazes containing iron and copper and applying a nearly transparent glaze made from crushed white porcelain stone mixed with ash from straw and wood. Yi Sam-pyeong also used whiter stones as glaze ingredients, researching ways to achieve a brighter white. As a result, news of white porcelain spread, and the number of people migrating to Yi Sam-pyeong's Tengudani kiln site increased. In 155 3. Transmission of Joseon Ceramic Technology to Japan during the Imjin War: Korean and Japanese Perspectives_Kyushu Ceramic Museum Yi Sam-pyeong taught the potters about kiln structures, methods of making clay from stone, and glaze combinations. During this period, the feudal lord initiated a 'porcelain production site creation' centered around Yanaka village, organizing the pottery production areas. He issued an order permitting only Joseon potters and their families to continue firing pottery, while others were to be expelled. This expulsion order meant the expulsion of Japanese potters from the entire Arita region. Specifically, designated areas for kilns were established, and seven kiln sites in the Arita region were ordered to be closed. In the Arita region, where mostly Joseon people remained, the Imari region, during the transition between the Ming and Qing dynasties, planned to export in place of Ming, and a production system centered on trade goods was established in each kiln in Arita. While it is not concluded that Yi Sam-pyeong's contribution to white porcelain production led to the birth of Arita ware, it describes the establishment of a locally autonomous mass production system with European export in mind.

Photograph

156 [Figure 4] The left is early Imari, from the Nara Yamato Bunkakan collection, dated 1630s-1640s. The right is Imari, produced in the 1650s-1670s, from the Saga Prefectural Museum of Kyushu Ceramics. It shows the process leading to the completion of blue-and-white porcelain through the full-scale development of technology.

[Figure 5] Imari porcelain with colorful cobalt blue glaze, displayed at the Kyushu National Museum in Japan. This can be seen as Imari ware with Arita style, after porcelain began to be exported to Europe in earnest.

The characteristic of Joseon technology transfer seen in Kurokami Shutendo's writings is that it starts from the premise that the technologies of Namwon and Haman, presumed origins of Joseon potters including Yi Sam-pyeong, each influenced Saga Prefecture in Kyushu (Kurokami Shutendo, 2015). In reality, the inscription 'a person from Geumgang, Chungcheong Province' on the 'Stele of Yi Sam-pyeong, the Potter,' located above Sueyama Shrine, contrasts with the 1990 report by the Korea Ceramic Culture Promotion Association, which identifies Hakbong-ri, Gongju City, Chungcheongnam-do as the origin of pottery technology. It also mentions differences in the pottery techniques learned by Joseon potters such as Kimhae, Namwon, and Haman. Specifically, it points out differences in the combination of wood ash for glaze and the proportion of clay when searching for pottery clay among Joseon potters transferred from Kimhae to Mt. Kumayama. Yi Sam-pyeong from Namwon and Joseon potters from Haman also discovered differences in glaze methods, application techniques, and kiln loading. The Haman kiln loading method involves placing rice husks in the six lower firing chambers and placing clay balls between the vessels, whereas Yi Sam-pyeong from Namwon uses sand in the upper two firing chambers and places roughly shaped clay balls between the vessels, using only a small amount of coarse sand. Katayama Mabi's research also confirms theories linking Uchino-yama in Saga Prefecture and Satsuma in Kagoshima Prefecture to Kimhae through kiln site artifacts excavated in those regions (Katayama Mabi, 2018, p. 6). In other words, among the Joseon potters who came during the Imjin and Jeongyu Wars, attempts are made to confirm the connection through comparison with artifacts excavated in Kimhae, citing places where a potter named 'Shinkai,' which sounds similar to Kimhae, is used. However, based on current research, there is no direct technological connection, but the possibility of white porcelain artifacts and a connection with the Sancheong region need to be examined.

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Conclusion: Differences in Research between the Two Countries

Research on the technology transfer of Joseon potters abducted during the Imjin War shows different approaches depending on the research objectives of each country. Korean research focuses on the contribution of Joseon potters to the development of ceramics in the Kyushu region or is motivated by a desire to reveal the origins, travel processes, and post-settlement lives of Joseon potters based on their Joseon identity. In contrast, Japanese research, based on the established theory that 'the origin of Kyushu ceramics is Joseon,' aims to identify the influence relationships with specific regions in Korea. Therefore, it is based on comparisons of excavated artifacts from the same period rather than the process of introducing ceramic technology by Joseon potters who migrated after the Imjin War.

Accordingly, Korean research attempts to organically grasp the conditions that allow for inferring technology transfer, even though there is almost no data to empirically verify the descendants of Joseon potters recorded in Japanese ceramic history or legends. Based on anthropological and archaeological research, it is understood that Joseon potters possessed ceramic technology in the 16th century and brought it to Japan, and that they possessed superior ceramic technology compared to Japanese potters in Japan, as evidenced by records and circumstances. Korean research focuses on how Joseon potters were able to begin their pottery activities in the kilns they first built and, furthermore, on the conditions that allowed them to dedicate themselves to the development of ceramic technology beyond producing ceramics for livelihood.

In contrast, Japanese research meticulously analyzes kiln tools and kiln structures, which are considered direct evidence of technology transfer by Joseon potters, based on ceramic artifacts excavated from both countries during the same period. However, since a definitive connection to specific regions in Korea cannot be established, it is referred to as Joseon-influenced. Most research focuses on Hizen pottery, where many Joseon-influenced artifacts are excavated. Through artifacts, technological influence is evident for a very short period, from around 1610 for about 20 years, and after the 1650s, even surface traces are completely replaced by Chinese influence. Explanations for this gap are sought by referencing Japanese ceramic history and contemporary domestic demand for the technological changes revealed through artifacts, identifying external causes. Nevertheless, these explanations do not address the introduction of core technologies such as glaze blending and firing techniques by Joseon potters. Ultimately, because the focus is on the continuity of Joseon ceramic influence within the broader framework of ceramic exchange, there is room to consider China, rather than Joseon, as the source of technological transfer.

While Korean research highly evaluates the technological achievements of Joseon potters, it does not deny the introduction of ceramic technology from the perspective of Japanese ceramic history or Korean-Japanese exchange. Museums such as the Kyushu Ceramic Museum and the Museum of Korean-Japanese Exchange (Nagoya Castle Museum) clearly state that the ceramic technology introduced by Yi Sam-pyeong is the origin of Arita ware. However, from the perspective of Japanese ceramic academia, artifact comparisons are insufficient to fully assess the transmission of pottery technology by Joseon potters, and instead, traces of Joseon are found within the context of influence from China. The artifacts do not indicate whether the route of introduction of ceramic technology was directly through Joseon. Thus, Japan and Korea

The 160 studies each pose two questions to us. These are the truths that the relics have not clearly revealed and the facts that the Joseon potters have not articulated. Nevertheless, in an effort to resolve these questions, it is necessary to focus on the spaces to which pottery technology was transferred by Joseon potters. This involves imagining the political and social events surrounding pottery technology at the time from a local historical perspective, using regional documents, old texts, and historical materials from the Imari region of Japan. The key event, the 'tea bowl politics' that occurred in the Imari region, and the figure of Yi Sam-pyeong, who possessed pottery technology, likely did not merely play the role of a potter. In other words, the obsession with perfecting white porcelain technology was not solely valued as a substitute for salary. The potters must have sought survival amidst the power struggles during the 'tea ceremonies,' which clearly demonstrate Toyotomi Hideyoshi's obsession with ceramics and the political competition among daimyo over them. By proposing the development of new tea utensils, they sought to prove the value of their pottery technology and, at the same time, aimed to secure independent space by receiving land to build kilns.

Just as the influence of Joseon pottery technology transfer on the development of Japanese pottery history is significant, the technological leap in Joseon white porcelain also has deep roots in technological influence from China. During the reign of King Sejong, Joseon white porcelain received an impetus for technological advancement when the eunuch Yun Bong brought high-quality ceramics from China for eight years at the behest of the Chinese emperor. Joseon white porcelain was a significant advancement from Goryeo celadon, so much so that it was coveted by the Ming emperor and his envoys and demanded as tribute, prompting King Sejong to order the indigenous production of raw materials and technology. It is predicted that the influx and treatment of ceramic technicians must have been considerable until the technology was mastered and internalized. Thus, the technological treatment of Joseon potters abducted to Japan not only influenced the cultural consumption of the upper class at the time but also led to an asymmetric trade structure where Joseon had to rely on imports of ceramics to meet demand. Furthermore, this contributed to the background of political power competition over ceramic production within Japan. At the time, Joseon, similarly, was actively accepting the advanced culture and artifacts from the Ming Dynasty, as advocated by the Silhak scholars, but due to unstable foreign relations with China and civil unrest in China, ceramic trade was also precarious. Therefore, it was a choice made in response to the growing demand from the royal court to new social classes. While the cultural demands of the burgeoning upper class, driven by national growth, served as a catalyst, from the perspective of ceramic technology history, technological development was triggered within the traditional East Asian tributary relationship where high-quality royal ceramics were exchanged as return gifts between the Ming emperor and the Joseon dynasty. However, the transfer of technology to Japan, due to its island geography, was forcibly carried out through the opportunity of war, which differs from the case of Joseon. Rather, considering that the transfer of technology by Joseon potters, which occurred under such special circumstances, was possible within Japan, the protection afforded to Joseon potters must have held value beyond mere sustenance. Based on Japanese research materials, such as local historical records from Fukuoka, Kumamoto, and Nagasaki prefectures, regarding the pottery policies surrounding Joseon potters, it is evident that competition in pottery technology was central to political power competition. After relocating to Japan, the technological respect given to Joseon

potters can be inferred to have carried political implications.

Ultimately, from the perspective of the political and economic currents of these three countries, the transmission of pottery technology, which had occurred around Jingdezhen in China, spread beyond China to Joseon, and then from Joseon to Japan. Therefore, from the standpoint of pottery technology itself, it is difficult to argue that it has roots in Joseon. Furthermore, from Japan's perspective, the objective of transferring ceramic technology was to establish domestic production, making it highly probable that the technology of Joseon potters was not preserved in its entirety. The emergence of 'Imariyaki' immediately after the production of white porcelain suggests that technological exchange was actively carried out during the process of Japanization. Therefore, through research in both countries, we can imagine that the adoption of ceramic technology occurred within a much more complex political landscape of the Sinocentric world than can be grasped through artifacts.

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