The End of Dutch Learning and the Youth of Fukuzawa Yukichi

Dejima · Park Ye-eun · Chung-Ang University

Introduction

The early modern period in East Asia was a time of upheaval. Joseon, which adhered to self-imposed isolation, and Japan, which voluntarily pursued modernization, took diametrically opposed paths. The background to Japan's successful modernization included Dejima and the visionary thinker Fukuzawa Yukichi. In February 2023, as the final event of the first day of the Kyushu expedition, which brought together three generations of Sarangbang participants (15th, 17th, and 19th cohorts), we visited Dejima. Surrounded by modern buildings, Dejima alone preserved the appearance of the early modern era. Dejima (出島), a small, fan-shaped artificial island built in Nagasaki, was the only place where trade with the West was permitted during the more than two centuries of the Shogunate's isolationist policy. Following the Portuguese, who were driven by the propagation of Christianity, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) trading post was moved to Dejima in 1641. Thus, the encounter between East and West began at Dejima.

<Figure 1> Aerial view of Dejima (1669) (Source: the Memory)

Only a select few Japanese were allowed to enter Dejima, which had a small bridge as its sole entrance, and Dutch VOC officials were permitted to leave only once a year to pay homage to the Shogun. Under such a strict isolationist policy, the flourishing of Rangaku (蘭學, Dutch Learning) provided the initial impetus for modernization. Rangaku collectively refers to the practical European science, medicine, and other academic fields, technologies, and cultures introduced through Dutch books. 3. The End of Dutch Learning and the Youth of Fukuzawa Yukichi

Until 1720, in the early period of isolation, the import of Western books and the study of Dutch were officially prohibited in Japan. However, it was impossible to prevent the influx of advanced Western goods such as wine, telescopes, and globes through Dejima. The publication of "Kaitai Shinsho" (解體新書, New Book on Anatomy) in 1774 by the Dutch learning scholars Sugita Genpaku (杉田玄白, 1733-1817) and Maeno Ryotaku (前野良沢, 1723-1803) is well-known as the starting point for the flourishing of Rangaku.

A century later, in 1875, Fukuzawa Yukichi (福澤諭吉, 1835-1901) emphasized the importance of Western civilization in his book "An Outline of a Theory of Civilization" (文明論之概略), stating, "Western civilization is the only thing that can strengthen our national polity and add luster to our imperial lineage. Why then should we hesitate to adopt it? We must unequivocally embrace Western civilization."

The 'Western civilization' Fukuzawa referred to here was not Rangaku, which involved studying European academic and technological knowledge through the Dutch language. He advocated for 'Eigaku' (英學, English Learning), which involved gaining insight into the essence of Western history, culture, and thought through English. He was forging ahead on Japan's path in the 19th century. His theory of civilization shook Japan's long-standing feudal traditions and led to successful modernization. More than 120 years after Fukuzawa's death, his portrait still lives on the 10,000 yen note, remembered by future generations. This expedition report aims to examine the transition from Rangaku to Eigaku during the first half of the 19th century and its significance through the life and changes in the mindset of Fukuzawa Yukichi.

Changes in World Order and the Decline of Rangaku

If the early modern period in East Asia was a time of upheaval, the primary source was undoubtedly the Western powers. In the early 17th century, the Netherlands emerged as a superpower, overwhelming Portugal with its powerful East India Company, backed by strong capital and naval power. This was also the external background for the Shogunate's decision to switch trading partners from Portugal to the Netherlands in 1639. International relations in the 18th century became even more complex, as Western powers vied to set standards of civilization and lead the world order (Ha Young-sun, 2019).

Although the Netherlands accumulated immense wealth by monopolizing maritime trade for a century, its power did not last long. Its hegemony began to decline in the 18th century due to successive wars with Britain, and it lost its position as the world's leading power following conflicts with France under King Louis XIV.

The shifts in world order naturally brought about changes in goods and mindsets within Japan. However, the decline of the Netherlands in the 18th century did not immediately lead to the decline of Dejima and Rangaku. Japan's opening to the West did not occur until 1859, more than a century after the Netherlands had stepped down from the main stage of international affairs. Furthermore, after the opening of the country, the "Joi" (攘夷) movement, advocating for the expulsion of Westerners, gained traction within Japanese society.

Meanwhile, despite maintaining its isolationist policy for a long time, the Shogunate was well-informed about international affairs. This was because all Dutch ships entering Dejima were required to submit reports on recent overseas developments, known as "Oranda Fūsetsusho" (和蘭風說書, Dutch Reports). Through these reports, the Shogunate was aware of the Netherlands' decline early on, yet it maintained its isolationist policy until the mid-19th century. This steadfastness can also be found in diplomatic records from that era.

In 1844, King William II of the Netherlands sent a direct letter to the Shogun, advising Japan to voluntarily open its ports as a lesson learned from the Opium Wars waged by Britain to open China, suggesting that this was the way to preserve peace. However, the Shogun firmly refused to open the country (Fuyuko, M. 2011). In 1852, another letter from the Dutch King arrived at Nagasaki port. This time, it informed Japan of the United States' plan to forcibly open Japanese ports. Although it was a year before the arrival of Commodore Perry's fleet in Japan, the Shogunate remained unfazed.

<Figure 2> Letter from King William II (1844)

(Source: the Memory)

<Figure 3> Reply from Tokugawa Ieyoshi (1845)

(Source: the Memory) 3. The End of Dutch Learning and the Youth of Fukuzawa Yukichi

However, regardless of the Shogunate's firm resolve, Japan's isolationist policy came to an end with Perry's arrival. Then, how did the decline of Rangaku become possible? Fukuzawa Yukichi holds the answer.

The Youth of Fukuzawa Yukichi and Rangaku

The flow of scholarship in Japan during the 18th and 19th centuries closely mirrors the youth of Fukuzawa, who repeatedly transitioned from Kan-gaku (Chinese classics) and traditional Confucianism to Rangaku and then to Eigaku. Following Fukuzawa's footsteps, we will examine the decline of Rangaku and the transition to Eigaku in the 19th century.

Born the son of a low-ranking samurai, Fukuzawa began studying Kan-gaku at the age of 14, following the customs of his domain. Although it was a late start compared to his peers, Fukuzawa, possessing academic talent, quickly reached the beginner level of a Kan-gaku scholar. The Nakatsu domain where he grew up had a very strict caste system among samurai. The difference in speech used between superiors and inferiors, distinguishing between high and low status, extended from public matters to children's play. Young Fukuzawa naturally developed a resentment towards the caste system and decided to leave his hometown, which was steeped in feudal ideology. In 1853, influenced by the arrival of Perry's fleet, Fukuzawa's brother encouraged him to study Rangaku, and Fukuzawa finally had an excuse to head to Nagasaki. Escaping his hometown in this manner, Fukuzawa dedicated himself to Rangaku day and night, to the extent that he never used a pillow. The study, which was merely an excuse for escape, gradually began to interest him. After about five years as a student at Tekijuku (適塾), founded by Ogata Kōan (緒方洪庵, 1810-1863), a renowned Dutch learning physician, Fukuzawa began teaching Rangaku at the age of twenty-five in 1858.

<Figure 4> General view of Tekijuku

Around the time Fukuzawa began his path as a Rangaku scholar, the Shogunate government was entering a new phase. Unlike previous Western ships that had merely come to trade, heavily armed fleets appeared off the Japanese coast. In 1853, the American Commodore Perry arrived with four warships, demanding the conclusion of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan, and the opening of ports for trade. Perry, carrying a letter from U.S. President Millard Fillmore, threatened military action if Japan refused his demands (Perry M.C. 1856). Aware of the Opium Wars, the Shogunate had to accept the American demands to avoid conflict. Thus, the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan was signed in 1854. Subsequently, in 1858, a Treaty of Amity and Commerce was signed with five Western countries, primarily stipulating further port openings, extraterritoriality, and the recognition of treaty tariffs. Consequently, the Shogunate opened three ports—Nagasaki, Yokohama, and Hakodate—and allowed foreign residency.

Fukuzawa first keenly felt the need for Eigaku in 1859, in the newly opened port of Yokohama. There, Fukuzawa could not communicate with foreigners, nor could he read the signs on shops or notices on the streets. He was disheartened by the fact that there were no characters he recognized in anything he saw, and he could not tell if they were English or French. Fukuzawa recalled his feelings at the time in his autobiography as follows:

"This won't do. I have spent years studying Dutch books with all my might, but now it is completely useless. I have truly studied something useless."

Six years after entering Rangaku, Fukuzawa witnessed the limitations of Rangaku firsthand and realized the necessity of studying English. He foresaw that as Japan began to open up, English would undoubtedly become essential, regardless of Dutch having previously represented European languages. Fukuzawa agonized briefly over the thought that abandoning Rangaku entirely and switching to Eigaku would require starting anew and enduring hardship. However, after great effort, he obtained an English-Dutch dictionary and, with the resolve that English was the top priority, dedicated himself solely to learning English. This was his first step as an Eigaku scholar.

Two Experiences in the West

Around that time, the Shogunate began officially dispatching envoys to Western countries for follow-up procedures related to the treaties. In 1860, the first official mission traveled to the United States to exchange ratifications of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan. Fukuzawa accompanied them as a member of the captain's entourage. Although it was a short journey of less than six months, it was enough time for Fukuzawa to open his eyes to a new civilization. While he was amazed by the objects and technologies he encountered for the first time in San Francisco, such as carpets and carriages, what truly astonished him and was difficult for him to comprehend were matters related to politics, economics, and society.

"I asked how the descendants of Washington were doing. I was told that there might be a daughter of Washington, and that although I didn't know how she was doing now, there were rumors she had married into a good family, and they answered indifferently, not considering it important. It was truly strange.

Of course, I knew that America was a republic and that the president changed every four years, and I thought that a descendant of Washington must be a great person... (omitted)... I still remember how strange it felt to receive such a response. I was not intimidated by scientific civilization at all, but I had no grasp of social life."

<Figure 5> Japanese Mission to the United States (1860) in Washington

Upon returning from the United States with a copy of Webster's dictionary, Fukuzawa resumed his lectures. The difference was that he no longer taught Dutch texts to his students but exclusively English texts. Fukuzawa continued to study and teach by relying on an English-Dutch dictionary. Meanwhile, his foreign language skills were recognized, and he was hired by the Shogunate's Ministry of Foreign Affairs to translate diplomatic documents sent to the Shogunate by the British and American ministers. While the work helped improve his English, more importantly, it provided him with the opportunity to freely access the Shogunate's diplomatic documents, allowing him to acquire information about international affairs (Lim Jong-won, 2011). Subsequently, Fukuzawa participated in the mission to Europe dispatched in 1861 as an official interpreter employed by the Shogunate.

If Fukuzawa was surprised by the customs and artifacts of American civilization, which differed from feudal Japanese society, during his first trip to the West, he sought to understand the root of these differences through his second experience in Europe. In other words, he developed a critical awareness that modern capitalist civilization must be understood from the spirit that created it. While information found in books could be read in their original texts and looked up in dictionaries in Japan, Fukuzawa strove to understand, during his stay in Europe, things that were too basic for foreigners to be included in dictionaries.

Setting aside content found in original texts, such as the principles of the steam engine or printing technology, he was curious about issues within capitalist society, such as how hospital maintenance costs were covered and by whom, how money was managed in banks, and the rationale behind the varying conscription systems across different countries. 3. The End of Dutch Learning and the Youth of Fukuzawa Yukichi

<Figure 6> Fukuzawa Yukichi during his European tour (1862) (Source: keio.ac.jp)

In the early part of his stay, Fukuzawa heard discussions about political matters in London, Paris, and other cities but could not fully understand them due to a lack of background knowledge. However, he directly observed the Prussian parliament and repeatedly asked people about the form of parliamentary politics, the ideals and principles of democracy, and so on. Gradually, he began to grasp the intricacies, and it took him ten days to finally comprehend complex situations. Fukuzawa considered this a significant achievement of his European tour, and his findings are extensively documented in "Conditions in the West" (西洋事情, 1866).

For Fukuzawa, who had long questioned the feudal class system, his two experiences in the West served as a process of establishing his own norms for modern civilization, using European and American civilization as models.

The Prevalence of the "Joi" Theory

However, upon returning from Europe, the domestic situation Fukuzawa encountered was the exact opposite of the Western world he had experienced. The "Sonnō Jōi" (尊王攘夷, Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) movement, which had spread nationwide after Emperor Kōmei (孝明天皇, 1831-1866) refused to ratify the trade treaties signed with five Western countries in 1858, was at its peak. "Joi" proponents, who viewed Westerners as barbarians and advocated for their unconditional expulsion from Japan, indiscriminately attacked those who advocated for opening the country or adopting Western civilization. News of "Yōgaku" (洋學, Western Learning) scholars being attacked spread everywhere, and Fukuzawa could not feel safe. He carefully guarded his conduct, refraining from criticizing society to those whose intentions were unclear, and spent his time solely engrossed in writing and translation.

As the atmosphere surrounding the "Joi" theory intensified, Fukuzawa's commitment to "Yōgaku" became firmer and deeper. This is clearly evident in "Tōjin Ōrai" (唐人往來, Foreigners' Correspondence), which Fukuzawa authored in 1865. Connecting the worldviews and civilizations of the time, Fukuzawa argued that there was a need to learn from "Tōjin," meaning Westerners. Furthermore, he presented a stage theory by continent and country, emphasizing that the Japanese people needed to see a broader world. He classified the United States of Europe and America as superior nations ("Jōkoku", 上國), and Africa and Australia as inferior nations ("Kakoku", 下國), while describing Asia as a middle-tier category of nations complacent and lacking reform. He also criticized the prevailing "Joi" sentiment in Japan, stating, "Is it not utterly unreasonable for Japan alone to boast of being a divine land, to shun interaction with the world, and to expel Westerners?"

Amidst the societal atmosphere where most people were chanting "Joi," the few scholars studying "Yōgaku" spoke of "Wakon Yōsai" (和魂洋才, Japanese spirit, Western technology). This meant adopting Western technology while maintaining Japan's traditional spirit. However, Fukuzawa's thinking differed. He viewed Western modern civilization as the direction Japan should pursue. Furthermore, he argued that the spirit and core values that formed the foundation of that civilization must be embraced. This is why Fukuzawa chose to transition from Rangaku to Eigaku.

He was the first to grasp that the difference between Western powers and Japan stemmed not merely from practical technology but from the foundation of their civilization.

<Figure 7> Fukuzawa's portrait on the 10,000 yen note

The Transition from Rangaku to Eigaku

Fukuzawa is regarded as a leading enlightener, educator, and father of modernization in Japan's early modern period because he presented the path Japan should take in the 19th century. Fukuzawa differed from the majority of "Yōgaku" scholars who advocated "Wakon Yōsai" and from the thinkers of the Meiji Restoration who sought to break away from feudal traditions. This was because his goal was Japan's independent self-reliance, not superficial technological advancement or regime change. Fukuzawa proposed 'civilization' as Japan's path in the 19th century for independence, setting Western modern capitalist civilization as its destination. We will trace the changes in his mindset by examining his early writings in chronological order.

The first of Fukuzawa's representative trilogy, "Conditions in the West" (1866), is an introduction to Western customs and artifacts based on his two previous experiences in Europe and America. It provides general explanations of Western social systems, social conditions, and ideologies, such as hospitals, schools, and telegraphs, along with introductions to the history, military systems, and financial affairs of major Western countries like the United States, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Russia, and France. However, above all, Fukuzawa emphasized political customs in the book.

In the preface, he argued, "Western studies are opening up daily and illuminating month by month, bringing great benefit to us. However, if we only pursue foreign knowledge and skills without understanding the political customs of each country in detail, even if we acquire that knowledge and skill, we will not grasp the fundamental principles of governing the nation, which will not only be impractical but may even lead to harm." He emphasized that understanding the politics of each country, the essence of civilization, is more important than enjoying the conveniences of civilization.

<Figure 8> Cover of "The Circumstances of the Western World" (1866) Furthermore, through "The Circumstances of the Western World," he clarified his objective: to discern whether to view foreigners as enemies or friends by understanding the general conditions and realities of foreign countries. This signifies his intention to forge Japan's path as a modern nation independently. In the book, Fukuzawa provides an objective analysis, stating that the Netherlands' standing in the international community, which flourished in trade in the early 17th century, lost its honor due to successive wars. He also draws attention to England's prosperity at the time, attributing it to its stable political system and generous laws. Most significantly, he translated the concepts of 'liberty' and 'right,' which did not exist in Japan, into 'jiyu' (freedom) and 'tsuui' (rights), respectively, and included a translation of the preamble to the U.S. Declaration of Independence, which contains the phrase "All men are created equal." Fukuzawa sought to fundamentally grasp modern society from the perspective of what Western politics and culture were like.

Fukuzawa himself described his work as "selling a part of civilization little by little, with the aim of importing Western new culture and simultaneously eliminating the country's old bad customs." However, his work was not merely that of an intermediary importing and selling Western culture. It contained his will and aspiration to move beyond Japan's feudal clan system towards a civilized society (Seong Hee-yeop 2020).

However, the question of which model among Britain, France, the United States, and Russia should be followed as the standard for modern civilization still remained with him (Ha Young-sun 2019). These considerations became more concrete after his third trip to Europe and America in 1867.

Fukuzawa's conviction towards studying English among Western studies can be seen in his literary activities. In 1869, Fukuzawa published "Discussions on the British Parliament" (英國議事院談). His work is the only standalone publication that details the political system of a specific country. In the book, he positively evaluated the British Parliament, noting that its system, a blend of monarchy, aristocracy, and commoner representation, achieved harmony and was more orderly compared to the political systems of other countries. He analyzed that Britain enjoyed a golden age due to its excellent parliamentary cabinet system, thus revealing his preference for the British parliamentary cabinet system.

Even after the first edition of "Seoyangsajeong" was published, Japan was still rife with anti-Western sentiments. However, in 1867, Fukuzawa traveled to the United States again. Despite the risk of war posed by radical anti-Western proponents, Fukuzawa returned from the United States not with weapons, but with a large quantity of original texts on economics, world history, British history, law, and geography.

While criticizing the Shogunate's anti-Western policy, Fukuzawa harbored the ambition to "make Japan a civilized and powerful nation like the West by promoting Western studies." Amidst the whirlwind of anti-Western sentiment, his words of encouragement to the students of his newly established Western Studies School, Keio Gijuku, reflected his profound understanding of the Western world and his commitment to civilization.

"When Napoleon waged war long ago, the invaded Netherlands had all its territories, including its home country and India, occupied, leaving no place to fly its flag. Only one place in the entire world remained. That was Dejima in Nagasaki, Japan.

Dejima had long been a Dutch settlement, and the influence of European wars did not reach Japan, so the Dutch flag always flew high in the sky at Dejima. Therefore, the Kingdom of the Netherlands was never destroyed, and the Dutch still boast about it today.

In that sense, Keio Gijuku, for the sake of Western studies in Japan, has steadfastly preserved the lineage of Western studies amidst all the turmoil and chaos in the world, just like Dejima in the Netherlands. Keio Gijuku has never closed its doors for a single day. As long as this institution stands, Great Japan can be considered a civilized nation in the world. Take pride in that."

<Figure 9> Bust of Fukuzawa within Keio University 3. The End of Rangaku and Fukuzawa Yukichi's Youth

Abandoning the Sword to Study the West: Fukuzawa's "Theory of Civilization"

"An Encouragement of Learning" (學問のすすめ, 1872) and "An Outline of a Theory of Civilization" (文明論之概略, 1875), considered representative works alongside "Seoyangsajeong," present Fukuzawa's view of civilization in a highly concentrated manner. While previous works primarily focused on introducing Western modern society and its civilization through translation, "An Encouragement of Learning" and "An Outline of a Theory of Civilization" are genuine enlightenment texts in which Fukuzawa sought to clearly convey his thoughts to the public in his own style (Lim Jong-won 2011).

Fukuzawa began the first edition of "An Encouragement of Learning" with the sentence, "Heaven does not create one person above or below another; no one is born a nobleman or a serf." He further explained that the differences in status and wealth that arise among people, despite being born without inherent discrimination, are solely due to the presence or absence of learning, thereby guiding the public towards scholarship. Emphasizing practical and applicable knowledge rather than the pedantic learning of the feudal era, Fukuzawa noted the prosperity of Western civilized societies through capitalism. He understood that money is a crucial driving force for national independence and social development, just as economics developed as a new field of study.

Throughout "An Outline of a Theory of Civilization," Fukuzawa emphasized that "Japan's immediate task and goal is national independence, and civilization is the means to achieve it." He also analyzed that the reason for Japan's lagging civilization compared to the West was due to the feudal era's value system and customs. Fukuzawa keenly observed that the core of Western civilization lies in 'individual freedom.' This is why Fukuzawa Yukichi is still remembered as a visionary thinker. He sought to advance by identifying the reasons for the rise of Western nations, particularly Britain, and embracing the core spirit of their civilization.

<Figure 10> Interior of Mita Ensuikan and a photograph of Fukuzawa

(Source: keio.ac.jp)

Fukuzawa believed that the spirit of freedom, the core of Western civilization, could only exist amidst vigorous debate. To learn the spirit of Western civilization, he introduced Western speech culture and public oratory to Japan for the first time. Through this, he aimed to enlighten the public and propagate the idea that opposing views could be considered and accepted through the format of discussion. In 1874, Fukuzawa took the lead in public enlightenment by establishing and opening the 'Mita Ensuikan' (Mita Speech Hall) within Keio University. 3. The End of Rangaku and Fukuzawa Yukichi's Youth Conclusion Fukuzawa, depicted on the 10,000 yen note as a representative figure of modern Japan, was an enlightener, educator, and above all, a brilliant thinker who paved the way for 19th-century Japan. Amidst the power struggles of Western powers, who had entered the modern nation-state system earlier, Fukuzawa advocated for 'sovereign independence' externally and 'freedom of the individual citizen' internally to protect the nation.

Japan's modernization began at Dejima, the sole window to the West from the 17th to 19th centuries, and was completed with Fukuzawa Yukichi, who advocated for a shift to English studies and the theory of civilization.

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