An Introduction to Architecture by Qianlong and Castiglione: The Yuanmingyuan

Park Jinhee · Ewha Womans University

Introduction

Born in the Qing Dynasty, it flourished with the gardens of the era, and then gradually declined.

There is a paradise that lost its form along with the traces of the Qing Dynasty.

The Yuanmingyuan is an emperor's garden that embraced everything from the famous Jiangnan (江南) within Chinese territory to palaces brought from the opposite side of the globe in a single stride.

Specifically, within the Yuanmingyuan, the Changchun Garden housed the 'Western Mansions,' which were built in imitation of European-style palaces.

These Western Mansions were constructed with the assistance of Jesuit missionaries, primarily led by Giuseppe Castiglione.

Giuseppe

Castiglione was an Italian painter who served as a court painter in the Qing Dynasty for approximately 50 years while also engaging in missionary work.

He was an individual who pursued missionary and artistic activities despite the constraints of being under the Qing emperor.

The Gospel of the Jesuits that he conveyed was not merely a one-way transmission.

He sought to understand Qing culture and art and communicate with the people of the Qing Dynasty within that context (Kim Ji-in 2016).

He created new works by integrating the artistic techniques he studied in Europe with the sentiments and culture and art of the Qing Dynasty.

The meeting of two cultural spheres to create new works is not a simple task like mixing two paints.

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In sociology, the interaction that occurs when two cultures meet is defined as 'cultural contact.'

The results of cultural contact include cultural fusion, cultural coexistence, and cultural assimilation, and these outcomes are influenced by the process of cultural contact.

Various factors are involved in the process, such as whether the meeting of cultures was voluntary or involuntary, whether the two cultures experienced one-sided or mutual cultural contact, and the relationship between the new culture introduced through cultural diffusion and the existing indigenous culture.

While cultural fusion and cultural coexistence maintain their unique cultural identities, cultural assimilation is distinguished from the former two outcomes in that one culture disappears into the annals of history (Doosan Encyclopedia).

If we focus on the fact that Emperor Qianlong prioritized architectural aesthetics and art over architectural technology when constructing the Western Mansions, we can analyze the creation of the Western Mansions within the context of cultural contact.

Western architectural art, brought by the Jesuits, encountered indigenous Chinese architectural art.

Although most of the Yuanmingyuan was destroyed in the aftermath of the Second Opium War, we can indirectly imagine the original appearance of the Yuanmingyuan through primary and secondary sources.

The Western Mansions have a basic framework based on Western architecture, but some elements incorporate traditional Chinese materials and techniques, creating a unique form of harmony.

Although the appearance of the Western Mansions will be discussed in detail later in this paper, this unique form of harmony can be seen as a result of the appropriate blending of the Jesuit missionary approach, which was responsible for the construction of the Western Mansions at the time, and Emperor Qianlong's approach to collecting culture.

Here, within the context of cultural contact discussed above, we may be able to delve a little deeper into the Western Mansions.

When two different cultures meet, especially two flourishing cultures, it is not easy to expect them to harmonize beautifully without intense resistance.

An example of this can be found in China a century earlier, in the 17th century, when Christianity began to be introduced.

During the period when missionaries entered China in the 17th century and spread Western science, technology, art, and culture, the Western calendar caused significant repercussions in Chinese society—particularly in China's world order.

Yang Guangxian (楊光先) submitted a memorial to the emperor titled 'Budeyi (不得已)' (1665) in response.

The memorial

protested the introduction of Western science and technology, arguing that it disrupted the traditional Chinese order and threatened the stability of the empire.

The memorial

argued that the adoption of Western scientific knowledge and practices would lead to the erosion of traditional Chinese values and institutions.

It also expressed concern that the increasing influence of Western powers in China could undermine the sovereignty and independence of the Qing Dynasty.

The memorial

urged the emperor to reject all Western influences and to maintain the traditional Chinese way of life.

The emperor, however, did not fully accept Yang Guangxian's arguments.

While he acknowledged some of the concerns raised by Yang Guangxian, he also recognized the potential benefits of Western science and technology for the Qing Dynasty.

As a result, the emperor did not completely ban the introduction of Western knowledge and practices.

Instead, he sought to strike a balance between preserving traditional Chinese culture and adopting useful aspects of Western civilization.

This approach allowed for a gradual integration of Western influences into Chinese society, leading to a unique blend of traditional and modern elements.

The Yuanmingyuan, with its blend of Chinese and Western architectural styles, stands as a testament to this era of cultural exchange and adaptation.

It represents a period when China was open to new ideas and influences, while still striving to maintain its own cultural identity.

The Yuanmingyuan's legacy continues to inspire discussions about cultural exchange, adaptation, and the creation of hybrid forms in art and architecture.

The story of the Yuanmingyuan serves as a reminder that cultural encounters can lead to innovation and the creation of something new and beautiful.

It also highlights the importance of understanding the historical context and the complex interplay of cultural forces that shape our world.

In conclusion, the Yuanmingyuan is more than just a collection of buildings; it is a symbol of cultural dialogue and the enduring power of human creativity.

Its story invites us to reflect on our own encounters with different cultures and to consider how we can foster greater understanding and appreciation for the diversity of human expression.

The Yuanmingyuan's architectural style, which blends Chinese and Western elements, is a reflection of the cultural exchange that took place during the Qing Dynasty.

The garden's design incorporates traditional Chinese landscape principles with European architectural features, creating a unique and harmonious aesthetic.

This fusion of styles is a testament to the open-mindedness of Emperor Qianlong and his willingness to embrace foreign influences.

The Western Mansions, in particular, showcase the influence of European Baroque and Rococo architecture, adapted to suit Chinese tastes and preferences.

The construction of these structures was made possible through the collaboration of Chinese artisans and European architects, including Giuseppe Castiglione.

Castiglione, a Jesuit missionary and court painter, played a crucial role in bridging the gap between Chinese and Western artistic traditions.

His work at the Yuanmingyuan exemplifies the successful integration of diverse cultural elements, resulting in a masterpiece of Sino-Western artistic synthesis.

and launched an anti-Christian movement (An Gyeong-deok et al. 2013, 16). Subsequently, the anti-Christian

debate ignited, leading to responses from missionaries and Jesuit astronomers.

Eventually, it was revealed that the Western calendar was accurate,

and Yang Kwang-seon was dismissed from his post as Director of the Imperial Observatory. This debate

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Introduction to Architecture_Yuanmingyuan

concluded as a result of meticulous calculations, but what we must focus on

is the title Yang Kwang-seon initially proposed: ‘Unavoidable’.

In the preface of his writing, Yang Kwang-seon explains the reason for the title

‘Unavoidable’ as follows.

However, the scholar-officials failed to uphold the principles of the world and instead

were swept away by the tide, leading the common people to become followers of heterodox teachings,

and furthermore, they are abolishing the traditional roles of sovereign, parent, and teacher.

Therefore, this task (of rectification) is truly one that cannot be abandoned.

(Omitted) Given this situation, can it be abandoned? If such matters can be abandoned,

what in the world cannot be abandoned!

This is why I, Kwang-seon, have reluctantly stepped forward. Compared to what Ziyu (子與) said,

my heart aches even more, and the situation is more urgent. How can there be time to consider

reason, and how can fighting tigers and crossing rivers be considered futile!

For this reason, the title of this book

is ‘Unavoidable’ (Yang Kwang-seon 1665; translated by An Gyeong-deok et al.,

40-41).

Yang Kwang-seon also recognized that his memorial was not written out of consideration for reason,

but rather to protect the indigenous order within China that was being threatened.

It was clear that the wave of Jesuit influence, which felt like a challenge to the existing Chinese order,

was not Kwang-seon’s concern. His sole objective was to quickly quell the seasickness he experienced

within Chinese society, which had begun to fluctuate abruptly. He took up his brush

‘unavoidably’.

This kind of cultural clash is a much simpler primary reaction than cultural fusion or coexistence.

Cultural fusion or coexistence can be achieved when there is an understanding of each other's

cultures and a search for a path to coexistence.

Of course, if the new cultural forms created by the two cultures are sufficiently

attractive, the two cultures can naturally merge without an artificial forum for discussion.

However, the harms of cultural imperialism caused by cultural clash or assimilation

are difficult to inflict upon someone who truly understands the other culture.

As the emperor who pacified the world, Qianlong demonstrated an attitude of actively

incorporating the world outside the empire into the imperial court. Simultaneously,

Castiglione's ability to complete the Western Mansions while not forgetting China's unique architectural aesthetics

within them makes us forget the risks of cultural clash.

How were these two individuals able to prevent this risk?

Castiglione, who knocked on the doors of the Qing imperial court with the clear objective of ‘missionary work’,

how did he achieve his goal while also winning over Qianlong?

What was the intention of Qianlong, who actively employed missionaries who could potentially disrupt the existing cultural order, in establishing a small Europe within the imperial gardens?

Restoring their intentions, hidden behind the beauty of the Western Mansions, is as important as restoring the Western Mansions.

The initial event where the unknown sky, unknown land, and unknown people met and achieved cultural fusion

can offer cultural, artistic, and missionary solutions to the clash of order in the 21st-century global political arena.

Yuanmingyuan, Changchunyuan, and the Western Mansions

Before delving into the story of Qianlong and Castiglione, we will first

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slowly build up the aesthetics of Yuanmingyuan, which serves as the background for this story, then Changchunyuan within it, and finally the Western Mansions.

Although much has been lost and it cannot be vividly depicted now, the goal of this section is to evoke the imagery of the garden, even if only approximately, through various descriptions and paintings.

The ‘Yuanmingyuan’ referred to in this text encompasses the three initially constructed gardens: Yuanmingyuan,

Changchunyuan, and Qichunyuan. The first

Before delving into the story of Emperor Qianlong and Castiglione,

first, I intend to begin this text by slowly building up the aesthetics of the Western Mansions within the Yuanmingyuan, the setting of this story.

Although much has been lost and cannot be vividly depicted now, the goal of this table of contents is to approximately visualize the landscape of the garden through descriptions and paintings from various materials.

The 'Yuanmingyuan' referred to in this text encompasses the first Yuanmingyuan built, along with the Changchunyuan and Qichunyuan.

The 'Yuanmingyuan' referred to in this text encompasses the first Yuanmingyuan built, along with the Changchunyuan and Qichunyuan.

The 'Yuanmingyuan' referred to in this text encompasses the first Yuanmingyuan built, along with the Changchunyuan and Qichunyuan.

The 'Yuanmingyuan' referred to in this text encompasses the first Yuanmingyuan built, along with the Changchunyuan and Qichunyuan.

The 'Yuanmingyuan' referred to in this text encompasses the first Yuanmingyuan built, along with the Changchunyuan and Qichunyuan.

To distinguish it from the latter, the originally constructed Yuanmingyuan will be referred to as ‘Yuanmingyuan

Main Garden’.

The Changchunyuan within Yuanmingyuan

Yuanmingyuan, first built during the Kangxi Emperor's reign, and expanded upon during his son, the Yongzheng Emperor's reign,

was completed with comprehensive and diverse expansions during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, representing the pinnacle of Qing Dynasty imperial gardens.

Initially, Qing emperors visited these beautiful gardens as summer retreats to escape the heat.

However, as years passed, they began to reside there for the majority of the year.

In the 18th century, the Qing Dynasty was experiencing unprecedented prosperity and peace.

Yuanmingyuan remains in our memory as the magnificent imperial residence that served as the stage for this era (Li 2-3).

The name Yuanmingyuan is composed of the characters ‘round Yuan (圓)’, ‘bright Ming (明)’, and ‘garden Yuan (園)’.

It signifies ‘a garden that shines fully’ (Li 2-3).

Figure 1 (Source: China Heritage Quarterly)

The name Yuanmingyuan is composed of the characters ‘round Yuan (圓)’, ‘bright Ming (明)’, and ‘garden Yuan (園)’.

It signifies ‘a garden that shines fully’.

The concept of ‘Yuanming (圓明)’ is a Buddhist term meaning ‘a state of perfect beauty that is truly good’.

It is said that the first wife of Siddhartha, who gave birth to the Crown Prince, told the Crown Prince, “You will illuminate all wisdom (圓明一切智)” (Wang Longzhu 2015, 42-43).

It is said that the first wife of Siddhartha, who gave birth to the Crown Prince, told the Crown Prince, “You will illuminate all wisdom (圓明一切智)” (Wang Longzhu 2015, 42-43).

It is a fitting name, especially considering that the Kangxi and Yongzheng Emperors were fond of Buddhism (Wang Longzhu 2015, 42-43).

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Introduction to Architecture_Yuanmingyuan

It is a fitting name, especially considering that the Kangxi and Yongzheng Emperors were fond of Buddhism (Wang Longzhu 2015, 42-43).

It is a fitting name, especially considering that the Kangxi and Yongzheng Emperors were fond of Buddhism.

The vast garden depicted in Figure 1 constitutes the entire area of Yuanmingyuan.

If one were to draw one horizontal and one vertical line to divide Figure 1 into four quadrants, the bottom right section would correspond to the Qichunyuan.

If one were to draw one horizontal and one vertical line to divide Figure 1 into four quadrants, the bottom right section would correspond to the Qichunyuan.

The section slightly occupying the top right would be the Changchunyuan.

The remaining large area is the Yuanmingyuan Main Garden.

The remaining large area is the Yuanmingyuan Main Garden.

In 1749, the Qianlong Emperor added a garden named ‘Changchunyuan (長春圓)’ to the east to expand the buildings and scenery of Yuanmingyuan (Li 13).

In 1749, the Qianlong Emperor added a garden named ‘Changchunyuan (長春圓)’ to the east to expand the buildings and scenery of Yuanmingyuan (Li 13).

The Qianlong Emperor, during his travels throughout China, would discover gardens he admired and order painters to create depictions of them.

He then meticulously recreated these gardens within Changchunyuan (Lee Eun-sang 2021, 252-253).

Much like collecting precious treasures in a small treasure box, the Qianlong Emperor would replicate the beautiful gardens he encountered in Changchunyuan.

Much like collecting precious treasures in a small treasure box, the Qianlong Emperor would replicate the beautiful gardens he encountered in Changchunyuan.

This practice was not limited to the renowned gardens of Jiangnan.

Fascinated by European fountains at the time, the Qianlong Emperor also commissioned Jesuit missionaries to construct European-style palaces.

Fascinated by European fountains at the time, the Qianlong Emperor also commissioned Jesuit missionaries to construct European-style palaces.

Fascinated by European fountains at the time, the Qianlong Emperor also commissioned Jesuit missionaries to construct European-style palaces.

The Western Mansions within Changchunyuan

The Western Mansions are situated in the northwest of Changchunyuan, occupying the entire northern expanse.

According to Lee Eun-sang (2021), precisely, “The Qianlong Emperor constructed the Western Mansions, a European-style palace, on a narrow, elongated plot of land measuring 320 meters in length and 85 meters in width, located in the northern corner of Changchunyuan.”

According to Lee Eun-sang (2021), precisely, “The Qianlong Emperor constructed the Western Mansions, a European-style palace, on a narrow, elongated plot of land measuring 320 meters in length and 85 meters in width, located in the northern corner of Changchunyuan.”

Within this complex, as is widely known, were built European-style palaces akin to ‘the Versailles of China,’ as well as labyrinthine structures designed in a European style, and European-style fountain gardens that the Qianlong Emperor favored.

Within this complex, as is widely known, were built European-style palaces akin to ‘the Versailles of China,’ as well as labyrinthine structures designed in a European style, and European-style fountain gardens that the Qianlong Emperor favored.

Within this complex, as is widely known, were built European-style palaces akin to ‘the Versailles of China,’ as well as labyrinthine structures designed in a European style, and European-style fountain gardens that the Qianlong Emperor favored.

European-style fountain gardens were also constructed.

The ‘Lou (樓)’ in ‘Western Mansions (西洋樓)’ refers to an architectural style that embodies the essence of Chinese garden art.

Built on hillsides and by lakes, and typically featuring open-plan windows to maximize enjoyment of the natural scenery,

the Lou was a frequently employed architectural style in Yuanmingyuan (Wang Longzhu 2015, 66).

the Lou was a frequently employed architectural style in Yuanmingyuan (Wang Longzhu 2015, 66).

The Chinese natural scenery enjoyed from the expansive Western Mansions must have greatly captivated the Qianlong Emperor.

The Chinese natural scenery enjoyed from the expansive Western Mansions must have greatly captivated the Qianlong Emperor.

The Qianlong Emperor commissioned structures such as the Palace of Versailles in France and Baroque-style buildings and fountain gardens in Italy.

To this end, missionaries from France and Italy were involved, with Castiglione playing a primary role in overseeing this endeavor.

To this end, missionaries from France and Italy were involved, with Castiglione playing a primary role in overseeing this endeavor.

The Qianlong Emperor commissioned Castiglione to create paintings of French and Italian palaces and fountains.

The Qianlong Emperor commissioned Castiglione to create paintings of French and Italian palaces and fountains.

These paintings were intended for the construction of a new style of garden within Yuanmingyuan, namely the Western Mansions (Barme 1996, 122-123).

The construction of the Western Mansions, which began around the 12th year of Qianlong's reign, was completed around the 48th year of Qianlong's reign.

The construction of the Western Mansions, which began around the 12th year of Qianlong's reign, was completed around the 48th year of Qianlong's reign.

The Western Mansions were not simply a copy of European architecture.

A prime example is the largest section of the Western Mansions, the Sea Temple, which features a hydraulic

pump for its fountain. This

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Introduction to Architecture_Yuanmingyuan

fountain hides a surprising element: twelve sculptures of human-bodied

creatures with animal heads. These fantastical sculptures, which encircle the circular fountain,

originate from the legend of the twelve zodiac animals that govern time in the East (Siu 75). As seen in Figure 2,

one can observe the peculiar sculptures surrounding the central fountain (Siu 75). Figure 2

refers to the peculiar sculptures surrounding the central fountain.

Figure 2 (Source: Yi Lintai)

In addition, key architectural elements such as vermilion brick walls, colorful glazed tiles, Chinese-style

ornaments and draperies, Taihu stones and bamboo structures, and Chinese yellow, blue, or green

tiles, maintained their Chinese character (Wang Longzhu 2015, 129-130). Furthermore, during the actual construction

of the Western Mansions, Jesuit missionaries collaborated with Chinese artists, making Yuanmingyuan a joint work

between Chinese and Western artists (Siu 1988, 77).

Thus, Yuanmingyuan can be considered a collaborative work between Chinese and Western artists (Siu

1988, 77).

Qianlong and Yuanmingyuan

The Qianlong Emperor's perception of China and the world

Figure 3 (Source: Royal Academy Arts)

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Yongzheng Emperor, the son of Emperor Kangxi, and his son, Emperor Qianlong, are known as the last emperors

who led the prosperous Qing Dynasty. After Emperor Qianlong, the Qing Dynasty rapidly began to decline under

Western influence. Yuanmingyuan, which was extensively developed during Qianlong's reign, is particularly

interesting as it mirrors the rise and fall of the Qing Dynasty. Yuanmingyuan is thus a stage that

intrinsically reflects the Qianlong Emperor's era.

Overwhelmed by the grandeur of the concepts of 'universal order' and 'Son of Heaven,' people often

mistakenly believe that the Qing Dynasty should rule over all regions within their knowledge. It is true that

Emperor Qianlong led a prosperous Qing Dynasty and wielded immense power. However, his conception of

world boundaries was more defined. Emperor Qianlong recognized that he did not hold dominion over the world

outside of China. He considered other countries, such as the Netherlands, India, Russia, and Europe, as distinct

entities separate from China. This perception differed significantly from that of Genghis Khan or Julius Caesar,

who believed that all nations under heaven should be part of their empire. The Qianlong era was a time when

global borders were being established, and Emperor Qianlong firmly held his perception of borders, recalling

his father's words: 'In the vast expanse of the four seas, China is merely one-hundredth' (Elliott 2010, 277-288).

Considering Emperor Qianlong's perception of borders, his construction of the Western Mansions becomes

even more intriguing. It becomes clear that he did not replicate European architecture in Changchun Garden to

incorporate Europe into the Chinese world. Why, then, did he replicate the architecture of the world outside

China, the 'foreign' world, in Yuanmingyuan, the emperor's closest residence?

Considering the context of the 17th-18th centuries, when globalization was not as advanced as in the 21st

century, it would not have been easy for the Qing Emperor to adopt European culture from across the sea

without careful consideration, simply because it was beautiful. The reason why Emperor Qianlong, in addition

to replicating Chinese gardens, also desired European gardens can be found in his role as a 'cultural collector,'

which will be discussed next.

Qianlong, the Cultural Collector

Emperor Qianlong was not merely an emperor engrossed in politics. He is known as one of the most prolific

collectors and patrons of the arts during the late Qing Dynasty (Sommer, 136). He was remarkably clear and

is known as one of them (Sommer, 136). He is very clear and

He collected a dazzling array of collectibles, to the extent that the term ‘Qianlong style’

came to refer to objects of ornate and luxurious design, suggesting we can understand his

collecting style. However, he was extremely confident in his collecting

philosophy and remained someone who greatly enjoyed collecting.

“Some might say that collecting can indeed lead to the loss of the most important thing

in one’s life. However, others

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may not agree. Ancient artifacts are

much simpler than those made today, and those made today

are more ornate than ancient antiques. Yet, who can criticize someone

for preferring simplicity over ornate decoration?

” (Emperor Qianlong)

Through the words of Emperor Qianlong quoted above, we can understand his true feelings about collecting itself.

The reason he amassed treasures, artworks, and even architectural works from all over the world

without omission was not limited to his aesthetic sense. His ornate aesthetics were also linked

to his identity as the Emperor of the Qing Dynasty. In other words, Emperor Qianlong

did not collect his items simply because they were ‘beautiful.’

We will analyze the reasons why Emperor Qianlong was so interested in the world's treasures, examining them sequentially from the perspectives of his status, his ethnicity, and the unique habitus formed by the combination of these two factors.

First, he held the status of ‘Emperor.’ Emperor Kangxi,

Emperor Yongzheng, and indeed, any ‘Emperor’ recorded in Chinese history

possessed that status. However, Emperor Qianlong, as a way to reinforce the imperial status he held,

emphasized the ‘combination of literary and military arts,’ a path taken by many

leaders. Emperor Kangxi, while cultivating his humanistic knowledge, also enjoyed horse riding and hunting.

Emperor Yongzheng, unlike his father, was an administrative leader focused on imperial affairs (Li 5).

Emperor Qianlong strove to demonstrate his authority as a leader by mastering knowledge in various fields such as politics,

military strategy, poetry, art, and history.

Second, Emperor Qianlong was an emperor of ‘Manchu’ ethnicity. The Qing Dynasty, founded by the Manchu people,

differed fundamentally from previous Chinese dynasties.

As a multi-ethnic state, it required an understanding of and engagement with various ethnic groups and their cultures.

Emperor Qianlong possessed a deep understanding of the cultures of the various ethnic minorities surrounding him and actively

embraced and assimilated them. The replication of famous gardens within Yuanmingyuan can also be seen as an extension of this assimilation of minority cultures.

Finally, we must examine the unique habitus that he developed as an emperor of Manchu ethnicity.

Emperor Qianlong was a powerful emperor presiding over a multi-ethnic empire.

With a keen interest in and the capacity to acquire diverse and rare items from around the world,

Emperor Qianlong would have possessed a distinct perspective compared to commoners whose habitus was shaped by domestic arts alone.

A prime example is Emperor Qianlong's strong fascination with Western-style painting, which was not prevalent in the East.

Unlike Eastern painting, Western painting emphasized the verisimilitude of its subjects.

Emperor Qianlong early on recognized the appeal of verisimilitude—achieved through realistic colors, perspective, and shading—elements not typically found in Eastern art (Elliott 2010, 255).

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Introduction to Architecture_Yuanmingyuan

Furthermore, he became captivated by European palaces and fountains, and was so enamored with European clockmaking technology that he employed clockmakers in Yuanmingyuan.

The background in which Emperor Qianlong grew up provides insight into why he desired the construction of the Western Mansions.

His tastes, unlike those of ordinary people, were bound to be complex and multifaceted.

Why Did Emperor Qianlong Commission the Western Mansions?

As mentioned above, Yuanmingyuan was a space that embodied Emperor Qianlong's aesthetic sensibilities.

And this aesthetic was not solely about beauty itself.

not limited to, but also encompassing a global political perspective of the emperor.

If we analyze this aspect a little more deeply,

Qianlong Emperor's tendency for 'cultural collection' can be conceptualized in comparison to other historical

leaders.

First, let's consider an interesting analytical tool analyzed by Pamela Kyle Crossely.

According to her, among the cultural practices exhibited by the monarchs of universal empires spanning Eurasia,

there is one phenomenon that appears most universally. This is the tendency to represent the world

in miniature, within their grasp, through encyclopedias, gardens, or 'curiosity cabinets'.

This is the tendency to represent the world in miniature, within their grasp, through encyclopedias, gardens, or 'curiosity cabinets' (Crossely 1999; Lee Eun-sang 2017, 29).

This is the tendency to represent the world in miniature, within their grasp, through encyclopedias, gardens, or 'curiosity cabinets' (Crossely 1999; Lee Eun-sang 2017, 29).

This is the tendency to represent the world in miniature, within their grasp, through encyclopedias, gardens, or 'curiosity cabinets' (Crossely 1999; Lee Eun-sang 2017, 29).

The interior of the Yuanmingyuan, especially the Changchun Garden, was like this. By replicating famous gardens, he could collect miniature gardens within his grasp, and the Western Mansions were one such collection.

By replicating famous gardens, he could collect miniature gardens within his grasp, and the Western Mansions were one such collection.

This collection demonstrates the monarch's power, directly linked to authority, such as 'a monarch who holds the world in his hands' or 'a monarch who can obtain famous buildings at will'.

This collection demonstrates the monarch's power, directly linked to authority, such as 'a monarch who holds the world in his hands' or 'a monarch who can obtain famous buildings at will'.

This collection demonstrates the monarch's power, directly linked to authority, such as 'a monarch who holds the world in his hands' or 'a monarch who can obtain famous buildings at will'.

James Clifford explains the strategies of self, culture, and authenticity constructed by collectors through the concept of 'cultural collection'.

He argues that this act of collection is akin to the consciousness of creating a world owned by an individual, much like children collecting their favorite toys (Clifford 1988, 218).

He argues that this act of collection is akin to the consciousness of creating a world owned by an individual, much like children collecting their favorite toys (Clifford 1988, 218).

He argues that this act of collection is akin to the consciousness of creating a world owned by an individual, much like children collecting their favorite toys (Clifford 1988, 218).

He argues that this act of collection is akin to the consciousness of creating a world owned by an individual, much like children collecting their favorite toys (Clifford 1988, 218).

Lee Eun-sang (2017) analyzes the Qianlong Emperor's Changchun Garden through the concept of 'cultural collection' by both Crossley and Clifford.

Lee Eun-sang analyzes the Qianlong Emperor's Changchun Garden through the concept of 'cultural collection' by both Crossley and Clifford.

Lee Eun-sang concludes that by collecting and centralizing cultural symbols, the ruler exercises dominion over the regions represented by the replicated objects.

Lee Eun-sang concludes that by collecting and centralizing cultural symbols, the ruler exercises dominion over the regions represented by the replicated objects.

Lee Eun-sang concludes that by collecting and centralizing cultural symbols, the ruler exercises dominion over the regions represented by the replicated objects.

Castiglione and the Yuanmingyuan

The Jesuit Adaptational Art Mission

Before beginning the story of Castiglione's life as a court painter in the Qing Dynasty,

we need to understand why Castiglione, as a missionary, came all the way to China.

As a Jesuit missionary, Castiglione's background in Qing

China explains the important nature of his artistic mission, and this explanation will be helpful in analyzing Castiglione's mindset, which greatly contributed to the construction of the Western Mansions.

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Introduction to Architecture_Yuanmingyuan

The Jesuits, founded in the 16th century to protect the authority of the Church and the Pope

and to restore the prestige of the Catholic Church challenged by the Protestant reformers,

were a monastic order.

To achieve this goal, the Jesuits were more actively engaged in missionary work than any other monastic order.

Based on centrifugal missions that expanded to the world rather than gathering in the Holy Land,

the Jesuits effectively utilized the religious aesthetics of the Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent as tools for evangelization.

The Jesuits sought to “discover God working in all things in this world”

and expanded their reach to the Asian region. Amidst the chaotic religious situation in Europe,

they came to Asia to spread the gospel of the Catholic Church, and they used the theological symbolism of the Catholic Church embodied in the Baroque style

as important missionary icons in the mission fields (Kim Sang-geun et al. 2009, 206-212).

The modern missionary methods employed by the Jesuits in Asia are referred to as

‘adaptationism,’ ‘inculturation,’ and ‘indigenization,’ all of which mean permeating the gospel into the local culture (Kim Hye-kyung 197).

As mentioned in the introduction, Castiglione also understood and studied the indigenous art of Qing

China, thereby comprehending the people of the Qing Dynasty within the context of culture and art. This understanding of indigenous culture stems from his

missionary approach, which was derived from the Jesuit method of adaptationist evangelization.

Applying God's gospel appropriately to the mission field and conveying it

is the secret to the success of the Jesuit missionary method, even on the distant shores of Asia. And

Castiglione's paintings represent this kind of artistic mission in the Qing Dynasty.

It was captivating enough for people to practice without resistance.

Castiglione's Court Painter Life

Castiglione was one of the most outstanding court painters who came to Qing.

He was an excellent painter. Unlike Emperor Kangxi, who formed deep friendships with Jesuit missionaries, Emperor Qianlong did not seek close personal relationships with them.

Unlike Emperor Kangxi, Emperor Qianlong did not seek close personal relationships with Jesuit missionaries.

Castiglione is considered one of the two individuals who were close to such an emperor.

Castiglione is considered one of the two individuals who were close to such an emperor (Elliott 2010, 289).

Castiglione presented the Qing emperors with Western painting techniques and methods he had studied in Europe.

Castiglione presented the Qing emperors with Western painting techniques and methods he had studied in Europe.

He presented the Qing emperors with Western painting techniques and methods he had studied in Europe. The realistic depiction, focusing on the geometric accuracy of capturing the Creator's works as they are, with realistic colors, perspective, and shading,

Focusing on the geometric accuracy of capturing the Creator's works as they are,

Applying realistic colors, perspective, and shading,

The realistic paintings were quite novel to the people of the Qing Dynasty.

However, Castiglione was not content with merely applying Western painting methods to his art.

He skillfully blended Eastern elements into his paintings, creating a unique East-West fusion that evoked a sense of mystery and novelty.

He skillfully blended Eastern elements into his paintings, creating a unique East-West fusion that evoked a sense of mystery and novelty.

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Architectural Introduction_Yuanmingyuan

This harmonious blend of East and West began to emerge in Castiglione's work.

Figure 4 is a painting by Castiglione. It depicts Emperor Qianlong surrounded by children and servants, rendered with a splendid fusion of Western techniques and Eastern elements.

It depicts Emperor Qianlong surrounded by children and servants, rendered with a splendid fusion of Western techniques and Eastern elements.

The figures of Emperor Qianlong and his attendants are depicted with greater realism using perspective and realistic coloring, while the surrounding natural elements are rendered in the familiar style of traditional Eastern landscape painting.

The figures of Emperor Qianlong and his attendants are depicted with greater realism using perspective and realistic coloring,

while the surrounding natural elements are rendered in the familiar style of traditional Eastern landscape painting.

while the surrounding natural elements are rendered in the familiar style of traditional Eastern landscape painting.

Figure 4 (Source: The Palace Museum)

Although Castiglione could relatively freely enter and exit Yuanmingyuan, exploring the harmony between Eastern and Western art, his position as a court painter under the Qing Emperor also imposed limitations on this artistic fusion.

Although Castiglione could relatively freely enter and exit Yuanmingyuan, exploring the harmony between Eastern and Western art, his position as a court painter under the Qing Emperor also imposed limitations on this artistic fusion.

Although Castiglione could relatively freely enter and exit Yuanmingyuan, exploring the harmony between Eastern and Western art, his position as a court painter under the Qing Emperor also imposed limitations on this artistic fusion.

Jean Denis Attiret, a French Jesuit painter and missionary in Qing China, described the limitations of his life as a court painter in his letter to Europe, 'A Particular Account of the Emperor of China’s Gardens near Pekin.'

Jean Denis Attiret, a French Jesuit painter and missionary in Qing China, described the limitations of his life as a court painter in his letter to Europe, 'A Particular Account of the Emperor of China’s Gardens near Pekin.'

Jean Denis Attiret, a French Jesuit painter and missionary in Qing China, described the limitations of his life as a court painter in his letter to Europe, 'A Particular Account of the Emperor of China’s Gardens near Pekin.'

He wrote about how restricted court life was (Attiret 1742, 66).

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Architectural Introduction_Yuanmingyuan

Once missionaries entered the service of the Qing court, it was difficult for them to leave China.

This fear stemmed from concerns about state secrets being leaked outside the Qing Empire.

This fear stemmed from concerns about state secrets being leaked outside the Qing Empire.

They lived within the Qing imperial court and had access to Yuanmingyuan, where even ordinary male servants were not permitted (Thomas 2009).

They lived within the Qing imperial court and had access to Yuanmingyuan, where even ordinary male servants were not permitted (Thomas 2009).

They lived within the Qing imperial court and had access to Yuanmingyuan, where even ordinary male servants were not permitted (Thomas 2009).

Furthermore, Western painting techniques could only be applied within the limits permitted by the emperor.

When painting the emperor's portrait, the Chinese traditionally believed that shadows should not fall on the emperor's face, and Castiglione had to obey the emperor's command to remove the shadows (Musillo 2006, 173).

When painting the emperor's portrait, the Chinese traditionally believed that shadows should not fall on the emperor's face, and Castiglione had to obey the emperor's command to remove the shadows (Musillo 2006, 173).

When painting the emperor's portrait, the Chinese traditionally believed that shadows should not fall on the emperor's face, and Castiglione had to obey the emperor's command to remove the shadows (Musillo 2006, 173).

Why Did Castiglione Paint the Western Pavilion?

While Castiglione was undoubtedly a skilled court painter, his artistic career was not as comfortable or easy as his talent might suggest.

While Castiglione was undoubtedly a skilled court painter, his artistic career was not as comfortable or easy as his talent might suggest.

European court painters did not receive official salaries, which meant they faced fewer restrictions compared to Chinese painters.

European court painters did not receive official salaries, which meant they faced fewer restrictions compared to Chinese painters.

However, someone of Castiglione's stature would have been expected to satisfy the emperor with his work, carrying a certain level of responsibility.

However, someone of Castiglione's stature would have been expected to satisfy the emperor with his work, carrying a certain level of responsibility.

Castiglione, who came to Qing for missionary work, could have been dismissed for a single flawed painting.

Castiglione, who came to Qing for missionary work, could have been dismissed for a single flawed painting (Musillo 2006, 31-32).

Of course, Castiglione was able to complete his missionary work in Qing with honor. However, painting under the powerful Qing emperor could never have been easy.

Of course, Castiglione was able to complete his missionary work in Qing with honor. However, painting under the powerful Qing emperor could never have been easy.

Of course, Castiglione was able to complete his missionary work in Qing with honor. However, painting under the powerful Qing emperor could never have been easy.

Amidst these circumstances, Emperor Qianlong entrusted him with the immense project of constructing the Western Pavilion.

Castiglione was a skilled painter, but he was an amateur in the field of architecture. As a court painter, he could not refuse the emperor's command.

Castiglione was a skilled painter, but in architecture he was

an amateur. As a court painter, the emperor's irresistible

As a person, Castiglione spent decades on this project.

He constructed a magnificent garden in a challenging environment.

It was a royal garden with a unique impression, harmoniously blending Eastern and Western elements.

I intend to seek the key to this possibility within the hard-power influence of the Qing Emperor and the soft-power influence of theological art.

I intend to seek the key to this possibility within the hard-power influence of the Qing Emperor and the soft-power influence of theological art.

I intend to seek the key to this possibility within the hard-power influence of the Qing Emperor and the soft-power influence of theological art.

The Jesuit court painters, centered around Castiglione, believed their mission served God's glory even under restrictive circumstances.

The Jesuit court painters, centered around Castiglione, believed their mission served God's glory even under restrictive circumstances.

This was particularly true of Western painting techniques, which depicted God's creation as it is (Kim Ji-in 2016). For this glory,

This was particularly true of Western painting techniques, which depicted God's creation as it is (Kim Ji-in 2016). For this glory,

the court painters, despite the difficult situation, demonstrated the essence of adaptive missionary work by harmonizing the artistic knowledge learned from the Jesuits with the indigenous art of China.

the court painters, despite the difficult situation, demonstrated the essence of adaptive missionary work by harmonizing the artistic knowledge learned from the Jesuits with the indigenous art of China.

However, the construction of the Western Mansions presented a new challenge for missionaries heading to China as painters.

They were amateur architects, and Castiglione, realizing the European-style palace he had envisioned and drawn, completed the Western Mansions with various technicians.

They were amateur architects, and Castiglione, realizing the European-style palace he had envisioned and drawn, completed the Western Mansions with various technicians.

They were amateur architects, and Castiglione, realizing the European-style palace he had envisioned and drawn, completed the Western Mansions with various technicians.

It is unknown whether the completed Western Mansions, beyond Emperor Qianlong's cultural collection, also achieved the missionary effects desired by the missionaries.

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Introduction to Architecture_Yuanmingyuan

It is unknown whether the completed Western Mansions, beyond Emperor Qianlong's cultural collection, also achieved the missionary effects desired by the missionaries.

What is clear is that Emperor Qianlong solely wished to collect the exterior appearance of European-style palaces, and in fact, did not place great emphasis on the Western scientific and technological advancements that powered those palaces.

What is clear is that Emperor Qianlong solely wished to collect the exterior appearance of European-style palaces, and in fact, did not place great emphasis on the Western scientific and technological advancements that powered those palaces.

This is not to say that Emperor Qianlong neglected science and technology, but rather, it may have been an unconscious avoidance stemming from the memory of anti-Christian debates within China in the 17th century.

This is not to say that Emperor Qianlong neglected science and technology, but rather, it may have been an unconscious avoidance stemming from the memory of anti-Christian debates within China in the 17th century.

This is not to say that Emperor Qianlong neglected science and technology, but rather, it may have been an unconscious avoidance stemming from the memory of anti-Christian debates within China in the 17th century.

Emperor Qianlong allowed the Jesuits to freely practice Christianity, but he maintained a skeptical stance towards Chinese people accepting and believing in Christianity (Lettre edifiantes, 22 (Etat de la relogion en 1783): 219f.; reference to Kim Ji-in's translation).

Emperor Qianlong allowed the Jesuits to freely practice Christianity, but he maintained a skeptical stance towards Chinese people accepting and believing in Christianity (Lettre edifiantes, 22 (Etat de la relogion en 1783): 219f.; reference to Kim Ji-in's translation).

Emperor Qianlong allowed the Jesuits to freely practice Christianity, but he maintained a skeptical stance towards Chinese people accepting and believing in Christianity (Lettre edifiantes, 22 (Etat de la relogion en 1783): 219f.; reference to Kim Ji-in's translation).

Emperor Qianlong allowed the Jesuits to freely practice Christianity, but he maintained a skeptical stance towards Chinese people accepting and believing in Christianity (Lettre edifiantes, 22 (Etat de la relogion en 1783): 219f.; reference to Kim Ji-in's translation).

The Facade of the Completed Western Mansions

Portraits of the Western Mansions

The appropriate synergy between Emperor Qianlong's inclination as a cultural collector and the Jesuit approach to cultural missions likely extended beyond the Western Mansions within Yuanmingyuan to any cultural artifacts that caught Qianlong's interest.

The appropriate synergy between Emperor Qianlong's inclination as a cultural collector and the Jesuit approach to cultural missions likely extended beyond the Western Mansions within Yuanmingyuan to any cultural artifacts that caught Qianlong's interest.

The appropriate synergy between Emperor Qianlong's inclination as a cultural collector and the Jesuit approach to cultural missions likely extended beyond the Western Mansions within Yuanmingyuan to any cultural artifacts that caught Qianlong's interest.

One such cultural artifact was the European-style fountain and palace, and the court painter Castiglione, astronomer Michel Benoist, and many collaborators completed the Western Mansions.

One such cultural artifact was the European-style fountain and palace, and the court painter Castiglione, astronomer Michel Benoist, and many collaborators completed the Western Mansions.

One such cultural artifact was the European-style fountain and palace, and the court painter Castiglione, astronomer Michel Benoist, and many collaborators completed the Western Mansions.

The Western Mansions, completed by Emperor Qianlong and Castiglione for their respective reasons and circumstances, are characterized by a mixture of Eastern and Western architectural elements, as can be faintly seen even in their ruins today.

The Western Mansions, completed by Emperor Qianlong and Castiglione for their respective reasons and circumstances, are characterized by a mixture of Eastern and Western architectural elements, as can be faintly seen even in their ruins today.

The Western Mansions, completed by Emperor Qianlong and Castiglione for their respective reasons and circumstances, are characterized by a mixture of Eastern and Western architectural elements, as can be faintly seen even in their ruins today.

As can be read in Atile's letters, Emperor Qianlong highly valued the skills of Castiglione and the Jesuit court painters, but he did not allow them to undermine the cultural heritage of China that had been maintained in the Qing dynasty.

As can be read in Atile's letters, Emperor Qianlong highly valued the skills of Castiglione and the Jesuit court painters, but he did not allow them to undermine the cultural heritage of China that had been maintained in the Qing dynasty.

As can be read in Atile's letters, Emperor Qianlong highly valued the skills of Castiglione and the Jesuit court painters, but he did not allow them to undermine the cultural heritage of China that had been maintained in the Qing dynasty.

Therefore, the same must have been true for the construction of the Western Mansions.

Even if European-style palaces and fountains were replicated in Yuanmingyuan, they would have had to be modified to suit the eyes of the Qing Emperor and the officials who frequented Yuanmingyuan.

Even if European-style palaces and fountains were replicated in Yuanmingyuan, they would have had to be modified to suit the eyes of the Qing Emperor and the officials who frequented Yuanmingyuan.

Even if European-style palaces and fountains were replicated in Yuanmingyuan, they would have had to be modified to suit the eyes of the Qing Emperor and the officials who frequented Yuanmingyuan.

Did Castiglione and the designers not know about this characteristic of Emperor Qianlong?

Castiglione, a court painter cherished by Qianlong, would have been fully aware of Qianlong's tastes and the cultural and artistic aesthetics of the Qing dynasty.

Castiglione, a court painter cherished by Qianlong, would have been fully aware of Qianlong's tastes and the cultural and artistic aesthetics of the Qing dynasty.

Furthermore, Castiglione and the Jesuit approach to cultural missions were based on a method that harmonized with indigenous art, rather than a one-way transmission of culture.

Furthermore, Castiglione and the Jesuit approach to cultural missions were based on a method that harmonized with indigenous art, rather than a one-way transmission of culture.

Under Qianlong, it might have been a natural outcome that Castiglione and the designers appropriately blended Eastern and Western architectural aesthetics.

Under Qianlong, it might have been a natural outcome that Castiglione and the designers appropriately blended Eastern and Western architectural aesthetics.

Under Qianlong, it might have been a natural outcome that Castiglione and the designers appropriately blended Eastern and Western architectural aesthetics.

Figures 5 and 6 below are representative architectural examples within the Western Mansions where Eastern and Western elements are harmonized.

Figures 5 and 6 below are representative architectural examples within the Western Mansions where Eastern and Western elements are harmonized.

Figure 5 is the Great Water Law (大水法), which forms the main fountain landscape within the Western Mansions.

In the front, there is a chrysanthemum-shaped fountain, and inside it,

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Introduction to Architecture_Yuanmingyuan

there is a fountain depicting hunting dogs chasing a roe deer, an element of Eastern imagery.

exists.

Figure 5 (Source: Yuanmingyuan website)

Figure 6 (Source: Yuanmingyuan website)

Figure 6 shows the Yellow Flower Garden (黃花阵), which is relatively well-preserved to the present day among the Western Mansions.

Passing through the maze in front of the Yellow Flower Garden and entering the central area

reveals a pavilion that seems to blend Eastern and Western styles.

It resembles the stone pavilions where medieval European aristocrats cooled off from the heat,

and it also seems to incorporate the serene aesthetic of an Eastern pavilion with its pointed octagonal roof.

It seems to embody the serene charm of an Eastern pavilion, with its pointed octagonal roof,

while retaining the charm of an Eastern pavilion.

In addition, as shown in Figure 2, the twelve zodiac animal

statues at the Sea of Flowers Hall, and other structures throughout the Western Mansions, where Eastern and Western elements harmonize.

The completed appearance of the Western Mansions as depicted at the time and

the remnants of the Western Mansions that exist today,

show the mysterious sense of Chinoiserie and Européenerie, presenting the subtle charm of architecture.

The mysterious sense of Chinoiserie and Européenerie, presenting the subtle charm of architecture.

Emperor Qianlong often spent his days in various activities such as resting, working, and holding banquets in the completed Western Mansions.

However, the Western Mansions, completed so beautifully, were not something Emperor Qianlong had decided upon from the start of his reign.

To be more precise, Emperor Qianlong had no particular plan to add new buildings or modify the Yuanmingyuan, let alone the Western Mansions.

To understand Emperor Qianlong's perspective on the Yuanmingyuan, one excellent source is

the "Later Record of the Garden of Round Brightness" (1770), in which Emperor Qianlong states the following:

One of the excellent sources for understanding Emperor Qianlong's perspective on the Yuanmingyuan is

the "Later Record of the Garden of Round Brightness" (1770), in which Emperor Qianlong states the following.

According to the "Later Record of the Garden of Round Brightness" (1770), one of the excellent sources for understanding Emperor Qianlong's perspective on the Yuanmingyuan, Emperor Qianlong states the following:

He was often seized by fear that he might damage the value of the Yuanmingyuan,

and when proposals for new garden construction were made in the early stages, Emperor Qianlong refused them.

Thus, while staying in his father's old garden, he suddenly had an realization.

4. Qianlong and Castiglione's Architectural Theory: Yuanmingyuan

He realized that 'an emperor needs his own space.'

He needed a space that balanced work and rest, a space that belonged to the emperor himself, not his father (Zou 2005, 55).

He needed a space that balanced work and rest, a space that belonged to the emperor himself, not his father (Zou 2005, 55).

Emperor Qianlong's Western Mansions were not merely a display of his cultural collecting prowess,

The Qianlong Emperor's Western Mansions were not merely a display of his cultural collecting prowess

but also a reflection of his pride in continuously expanding the world created by his ancestors.

He did not perceive the Yuanmingyuan as a summer resort for leisure and relaxation,

but wished to manage it well, as his ancestors had done.

He wished to manage it well, as his ancestors had done.

By bringing European gardens into the Yuanmingyuan, a miniature version of famous gardens in Jiangnan,

perhaps he wished to open a new dimension for the Qing dynasty, one that his ancestors had not explored.

Perhaps he wished to open a new dimension for the Qing dynasty, one that his ancestors had not explored?

The Afterimage of the Western Mansions

Not everyone appreciated the mysterious collaboration between Emperor Qianlong and Castiglione with equal pleasure.

There were also prejudiced views that saw Castiglione's work in designing the Western Mansions under Emperor Qianlong's command as an act of 'modifying European forms to suit Chinese imperial tastes.'

There were also prejudiced views that saw Castiglione's work in designing the Western Mansions under Emperor Qianlong's command as an act of 'modifying European forms to suit Chinese imperial tastes.'

They were ridiculed as a hybrid of Italian, Gothic, and Chinese styles (Finlay 2007, 184).

Whether they had actually seen the Western Mansions or not, such conservative criticism of new architecture at the time might have been a natural reaction.

It was true that European architectural styles were harmoniously integrated and somewhat modified with the local culture of China,

and the evaluation of whether this discovered a new aesthetic balance was, in fact, solely left to Emperor Qianlong.

It was true that European architectural styles were harmoniously integrated and somewhat modified with the local culture of China,

and the evaluation of whether this discovered a new aesthetic balance was, in fact, solely left to Emperor Qianlong.

and the evaluation of whether this discovered a new aesthetic balance was, in fact, solely left to Emperor Qianlong.

because the evaluation of whether this discovered a new aesthetic balance was, in fact, solely left to Emperor Qianlong.

Contemporary Europeans might have found the challenge of adding the twelve zodiac animals, chrysanthemums, and deer to architectural styles originating from their own countries to be awkward and strange.

Contemporary Europeans might have found the challenge of adding the twelve zodiac animals, chrysanthemums, and deer to architectural styles originating from their own countries to be awkward and strange.

Contemporary Europeans might have found the challenge of adding the twelve zodiac animals, chrysanthemums, and deer to architectural styles originating from their own countries to be awkward and strange.

Nevertheless, the Western Mansions remain one of the most striking features of the Yuanmingyuan from the 18th century to the present day in the 21st century,

and are drawing attention as a must-visit tourist attraction.

Even almost

The reason this largely lost structure is so sought after is that it became a sufficient piece of architecture to move people's hearts, simply by being 'a Western-style building in the East' or 'a Western building containing Eastern elements.' As was the case during Emperor Qianlong's reign, high aesthetic excellence was not of great importance. It was merely that Xiyanglou, magically transplanted from the other side of the world, was mysterious.

'a Western-style building in the East' or 'a Western building containing Eastern elements.'

sufficient piece of architecture to move people's hearts,

It was because it became a sufficient piece of architecture to move people's hearts. As was the case during Emperor Qianlong's reign,

high aesthetic excellence was not of great importance. It was merely

that Xiyanglou, magically transplanted from the other side of the world,

was mysterious.

Furthermore, Xiyanglou not only showcases the Yuanmingyuan of Emperor Qianlong's Qing dynasty but also serves as a testament to the Gospel left by the Jesuits, represented by Castiglione.

showcases the Yuanmingyuan of Emperor Qianlong's Qing dynasty and also serves as a testament to the Gospel left by the Jesuits, represented by Castiglione.

Castiglione was a missionary who worked as a court painter under the Qing Emperor and believed that all adversities and tasks given to him were for the glory of God. Even if his paintings and architecture were perfectly completed according to Emperor Qianlong's demands, immediate riches were not forthcoming. He merely

worked as a court painter under the Qing Emperor and believed that all adversities and tasks given to him were for the glory of God. Castiglione was a missionary who

were perfectly completed according to Emperor Qianlong's demands, immediate riches were not forthcoming. He merely saw his artistic abilities as a divine calling and quietly conveyed God's will in lands unknown to him, where the Gospel was not yet preached.

Even if his paintings and architecture were perfectly completed according to Emperor Qianlong's demands, immediate riches were not forthcoming. He merely saw his artistic abilities as a divine calling and quietly conveyed God's will in lands unknown to him, where the Gospel was not yet preached.

4. An Introduction to the Architecture of Qianlong and Castiglione_Yuanmingyuan

He merely saw his artistic abilities as a divine calling and quietly conveyed God's will in lands unknown to him, where the Gospel was not yet preached.

He merely saw his artistic abilities as a divine calling and quietly conveyed God's will in lands unknown to him, where the Gospel was not yet preached. He merely saw his artistic abilities as a divine calling and quietly conveyed God's will in lands unknown to him, where the Gospel was not yet preached.

He merely saw his artistic abilities as a divine calling and quietly conveyed God's will in lands unknown to him, where the Gospel was not yet preached. He merely saw his artistic abilities as a divine calling and quietly conveyed God's will in lands unknown to him, where the Gospel was not yet preached.

conveyed God's will in lands unknown to him, where the Gospel was not yet preached.

Moving Forward

The cultural harmony demonstrated by Qianlong's Qing dynasty and Castiglione's Jesuit order provides a familiar model for our world politics in the 21st century.

This is especially true amidst the escalating and acute conflict between China and the West, where the European Palaces (Xiyanglou) showcase Western culture elegantly situated within Chinese territory.

Paradoxically, as the 21st century approached, these magnificent European Palaces began to fade. Ironically, they were diminished by the very Europeans who had preached the Gospel amicably in the 18th century.

The European Palaces (Xiyanglou) represent Western culture within China, and their aesthetic is a testament to this.

Ironically, as the 21st century approached, these magnificent European Palaces began to fade. Ironically, they were diminished by the very Europeans who had preached the Gospel amicably in the 18th century.

Ironically, as the 21st century approached, these magnificent European Palaces began to fade. Ironically, they were diminished by the very Europeans who had preached the Gospel amicably in the 18th century.

Ironically, as the 21st century approached, these magnificent European Palaces began to fade. Ironically, they were diminished by the very Europeans who had preached the Gospel amicably in the 18th century.

Ironically, as the 21st century approached, these magnificent European Palaces began to fade. Ironically, they were diminished by the very Europeans who had preached the Gospel amicably in the 18th century.

Examining the material elements of the European Palaces and the mentalities of Qianlong and Castiglione plays a crucial role in the context of 'reconciliation,' a major task for the 21st century.

This is because, prior to Qianlong, in the 17th century China, there were debates surrounding Christianity and anti-Christian sentiments, and after heated discussions, 18th-century China embraced a new phase of Christianity.

This is because, prior to Qianlong, in the 17th century China, there were debates surrounding Christianity and anti-Christian sentiments, and after heated discussions, 18th-century China embraced a new phase of Christianity.

This is because, prior to Qianlong, in the 17th century China, there were debates surrounding Christianity and anti-Christian sentiments, and after heated discussions, 18th-century China embraced a new phase of Christianity.

This is because, prior to Qianlong, in the 17th century China, there were debates surrounding Christianity and anti-Christian sentiments, and after heated discussions, 18th-century China embraced a new phase of Christianity.

Of course, this acceptance was not of Christianity itself as a religion. If the missionary activities disrupted the cosmic order and caused chaos in Chinese society, Qianlong would have certainly issued a stern decree.

Of course, this acceptance was not of Christianity itself as a religion. If the missionary activities disrupted the cosmic order and caused chaos in Chinese society, Qianlong would have certainly issued a stern decree.

Of course, this acceptance was not of Christianity itself as a religion. If the missionary activities disrupted the cosmic order and caused chaos in Chinese society, Qianlong would have certainly issued a stern decree.

However, the aesthetics of the European Palaces, possessing an allure that captivated even the Son of Heaven, were majestically established at the northern end of the Changchun Garden.

However, the aesthetics of the European Palaces, possessing an allure that captivated even the Son of Heaven, were majestically established at the northern end of the Changchun Garden.

The architectural approach of Qianlong and Castiglione in completing the European Palaces cannot be described as a complex blueprint.

Rather, it can be seen as a successful collaboration between two individuals with distinct goals, striving to achieve them.

Rather, it can be seen as a successful collaboration between two individuals with distinct goals, striving to achieve them.

Qianlong wished to expand the Yuanmingyuan and leverage his leadership as a collector of culture, while Castiglione aimed to continue his missionary work according to God's calling to the best of his abilities.

Qianlong wished to expand the Yuanmingyuan and leverage his leadership as a collector of culture, while Castiglione aimed to continue his missionary work according to God's calling to the best of his abilities.

Qianlong wished to expand the Yuanmingyuan and leverage his leadership as a collector of culture, while Castiglione aimed to continue his missionary work according to God's calling to the best of his abilities.

Beautiful Western architectural structures were rumored to have reached them, and upon seeing them, Qianlong, captivated, initiated the project, to which Castiglione responded with his usual dedication.

Beautiful Western architectural structures were rumored to have reached them, and upon seeing them, Qianlong, captivated, initiated the project, to which Castiglione responded with his usual dedication.

Beautiful Western architectural structures were rumored to have reached them, and upon seeing them, Qianlong, captivated, initiated the project, to which Castiglione responded with his usual dedication.

Of course, prior to this moment, various factors were at play, including the Jesuit order's policy of inculturation and Qianlong's interference in Jesuit artistic endeavors.

Of course, prior to this moment, various factors were at play, including the Jesuit order's policy of inculturation and Qianlong's interference in Jesuit artistic endeavors.

The accumulation of these factors resulted in the creation of the European Palaces, which were in harmony with Eastern aesthetics while effectively showcasing Western architectural principles.

The accumulation of these factors resulted in the creation of the European Palaces, which were in harmony with Eastern aesthetics while effectively showcasing Western architectural principles.

The accumulation of these factors resulted in the creation of the European Palaces, which were in harmony with Eastern aesthetics while effectively showcasing Western architectural principles.

Further research is needed to explore the reactions of the Chinese people to the new Gospel brought by Castiglione and the Jesuits to the Qing dynasty.

Further research is needed to explore the reactions of the Chinese people to the new Gospel brought by Castiglione and the Jesuits to the Qing dynasty.

While new research on Chinese texts concerning Jesuit art is being conducted by Pagani,

While new research on Chinese texts concerning Jesuit art is being conducted by Pagani,

4. An Introduction to the Architecture of Qianlong and Castiglione: Yuanmingyuan

research on the outcomes of missionary activities in the regions they impacted remains insufficient.

The Jesuit inculturation approach, characterized by its method of 'adaptation to the region,'

If the aforementioned research is supplemented, the true value of the exquisite architecture created by Qianlong and Castiglione can be fully appreciated.

If the aforementioned research is supplemented, the true value of the exquisite architecture created by Qianlong and Castiglione can be fully appreciated.

is.

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Yuanmingyuan Website

http://www.yuanmingyuanpark.cn/

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