The Encounter Between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong: A Study of the Go Gwan Sang Dae

Yoo Ji-hyun · Yonsei University

Introduction

Encounter is the act of meeting and communicating with an Other who is entirely different from oneself. Through encounters, we may discover a new self that we did not know before, or furthermore, experience a transformed self influenced by the Other.

Encounter itself holds high value because when two or more entirely different entities meet, they share their respective elements and create unimaginable changes, thereby producing something new that did not exist before.

Just as our individual lives are composed of a continuous series of countless encounters, world history, from the past to the present, has also been formed by a continuous series of innumerable encounters.

Some, driven by simple curiosity, others in search of a better life, and still others to fulfill their missions, left their homelands to explore other worlds, enabling various encounters to take place across the globe.

3. The Encounter Between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong: A Study of the Go Gwan Sang Dae

Among these numerous historical encounters, the meeting between East and West is undoubtedly one that should be treated with particular significance.

The encounter between East and West dates back to the early 16th century. In the early 16th century, the world entered a new phase with the significant growth of Portugal, and the world order was reorganized with Portugal at its center.

As a global power at the center of the world, Portugal actively engaged in maritime exploration with the aim of establishing colonies. Consequently, Portugal pioneered new sea routes to various continents such as Africa, the Americas, and Asia, expanding its influence across the globe (Modelski 1978, 219).

The opening of new sea routes brought about many changes. Expanded maritime transportation offered freedom of movement to the Portuguese, which not only served as a catalyst for the significant expansion of colonial ventures and trade but also influenced religious organizations, enabling the commencement of missionary work in the New World.

With the world order being reorganized around Portugal in the early 16th century and the global powers actively pioneering new sea routes, the encounter between East and West became possible through trade, colonial endeavors, and missionary activities.

Amidst the complex interplay of various factors that led to the successful encounter between East and West, the role and contribution of Jesuit missionaries are particularly noteworthy.

While the merchants' desire for new markets and wealth opened the channels for East-West trade, the Jesuits' passion and conviction for spreading the Gospel enabled profound cultural and academic exchanges between East and West, going beyond mere economic interaction.

The Jesuit missionaries, who undertook arduous voyages from Europe to the unknown world of Asia, sought to spread the word of God in the New World.

Believing that they could only effectively preach the Gospel by communicating smoothly and closely with the local people, the missionaries first strove to understand them by studying their languages, cultures, and histories.

Secondly, they made efforts to share and teach European knowledge and culture to the local populations.

In essence, the Jesuit missionaries, in order to achieve their ultimate goal of spreading the Gospel, focused on cultural and academic exchange as a foundational step.

Among the various encounters, both large and small, between East and West, how did the encounter between the European Jesuits and Korea unfold?

Regrettably, a direct encounter between the European Jesuits and Korea did not materialize.

While Jesuit missionaries, starting with the Portuguese missionary Francis Xavier, continuously visited Japan and China, enabling direct interaction with the West from an early stage, Korea's engagement with the West was limited to indirect contact through China (Shin Ik-cheol 2013, 446).

Furthermore, the encounters between Korea and the West that took place in Beijing, China, could only occur when Joseon envoys visited Beijing. Consequently, not only was the continuity of these encounters lacking, but the encounters themselves were extremely limited.

had limitations that were unavoidable. However, even if the encounters

were limited, their impact was not negligible. In the 18th century,

China, thanks to the intellectual exchange with Jesuit missionaries, achieved great advancements in fields such as science, mathematics,

and astronomy. With the help of Western missionaries,

3. The Encounter Between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong_Gogwansangdae

Joseon intellectuals, witnessing the developing China, also became very interested in Western scholarship. When visiting Beijing,

they seized the golden opportunity to directly experience the Western civilization they had only heard about.

Therefore, Joseon envoys visiting Beijing would customarily visit the Catholic Church and meet with Jesuit missionaries,

through which they encountered Western arts, religion, and science.

Since these encounters occurred only a few times a year during the missions to Beijing, they were very limited.

However, due to the exceptional anticipation and attitude towards these meetings,

the encounters between the West and Joseon in Beijing could exert a considerable influence on Joseon's science and astronomy.

The academic circles in Japan and China have actively conducted research on their interactions with Jesuit missionaries.

Of course, Japan and China had direct and prolonged contact with Jesuit missionaries, thus offering more and diverse research subjects compared to Korea.

However, Korea also had special encounters with Jesuit missionaries through the intermediary of Beijing, which significantly influenced Joseon at the time.

Therefore, these encounters also warrant detailed study.

This paper, therefore, examines the encounters between Jesuit missionary groups and Joseon diplomatic missions in 18th-century Beijing,

focusing specifically on the meeting between the Jesuit missionary Hallerstein and the Joseon Silhak scholar Hong Dae-yong,

and contemplates the significance of this encounter.

Before delving into the meeting of these two historical figures, it is worth briefly mentioning the importance of the Western missionary Hallerstein in 18th-century Korean history.

He was a Jesuit missionary from Portugal with exceptional academic proficiency in astronomy and mathematics.

His talents were recognized by the Chinese Emperor, and he worked in the Chinese imperial court for a long time.

He not only had a profound impact on Chinese science but also extended his influence to neighboring Joseon, contributing to the advancement of Joseon's science.

His expertise in science and astronomy was so great that not only Joseon Silhak scholars but also King Yeongjo of Joseon knew his name.

It is said that King Yeongjo would directly inquire about Hallerstein's encounters when the Joseon envoys returned from Beijing.

However, despite his contributions, his name is not well-known in modern Korea.

Although he never set foot in Korea and had no direct communication with Koreans other than the Joseon envoys who visited Beijing,

Hallerstein is a part of Korean history that we should know, given that he met our ancestors in the neighboring country of China and influenced Korea across the sea through them.

In recreating the encounter between these two historical figures, we will use writings directly authored by Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong concerning their meeting as primary sources.

In addition, we will refer to existing research related to their encounter.

We will explore the lives of Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong until they met in 18th-century Beijing, the nature of their encounter in Beijing, and finally, what this past encounter suggests to us today.

3. The Encounter Between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong_Gogwansangdae

Before the Encounter: Until They Met in Beijing, China

Hallerstein

Hallerstein was born on August 27, 1703, in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia.

After graduating from the Jesuit University in Ljubljana, he joined the Jesuit order in Vienna on October 26, 1721.

Subsequently, he pursued studies in humanities, mathematics, and theology, while also teaching grammar and rhetoric to students, spending his twenties in this manner.

As he continued his studies and teaching through his twenties, he applied for missionary work in the New World on October 8, 1727.

His wish was finally fulfilled eight years later, in 1735.

However, the joy of finally being able to depart for his mission was short-lived, as the journey to China was fraught with hardship and adversity.

The ships Hallerstein boarded were generally passenger vessels.

The writings directly composed and left by the two individuals concerning their encounter will serve as primary source materials, and in addition to these,

I intend to reference existing research related to their meeting.

What kind of lives did Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong lead until they met in 18th-century Beijing? What was their encounter like in Beijing, bridging two different lives? And finally, I will consider what insights such past encounters offer us today.

What kind of lives did Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong lead until they met in 18th-century Beijing? What was their encounter like in Beijing, bridging two different lives? And finally, I will consider what insights such past encounters offer us today.

What kind of lives did Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong lead until they met in 18th-century Beijing? What was their encounter like in Beijing, bridging two different lives? And finally, I will consider what insights such past encounters offer us today.

What kind of lives did Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong lead until they met in 18th-century Beijing? What was their encounter like in Beijing, bridging two different lives? And finally, I will consider what insights such past encounters offer us today.

3. The Encounter Between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong: A High-Level Meeting

Before the Encounter: Until They Met in Beijing, China

Hallerstein

Hallerstein was born on August 27, 1703, in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia.

After completing his studies at the Jesuit University in Ljubljana, he joined the Jesuit order in Vienna on October 26, 1721.

Subsequently, he pursued studies in humanities, mathematics, and theology, while also teaching grammar and rhetoric to students, spending his twenties in this manner.

Subsequently, he pursued studies in humanities, mathematics, and theology, while also teaching grammar and rhetoric to students, spending his twenties in this manner.

Subsequently, he pursued studies in humanities, mathematics, and theology, while also teaching grammar and rhetoric to students, spending his twenties in this manner.

After spending his twenties alternating between learning and teaching, he applied for missionary work in the New World on October 8, 1727.

His wish was finally fulfilled eight years later, in 1735.

However, the joy of finally being able to depart for his mission field was short-lived, as the journey to China was fraught with hardship and adversity.

The ships Hallerstein had to board were generally passenger ships.

The ships Hallerstein had to board were generally passenger ships.

It was a cargo ship or a passenger-cargo ship, not a dedicated passenger liner. The ship was laden with a large amount of cargo, and the limited space remaining after accounting for the cargo had to be shared by many people, making life aboard the ship extremely uncomfortable. Furthermore, diseases were rampant on board, making it unsafe, and when wars broke out in the shipping lanes they had to pass through, they had no choice but to halt their journey and wait for the situation to improve. However, these hardships and adversities could not break Hallerstein's resolve for missionary work in the New World. Even during the arduous journey to China, he studied Portuguese and astronomy, diligently preparing for future missionary activities (Saje 2009, 62-73).

was loaded with cargo, and the limited space remaining after accounting for the cargo had to be shared by many people, making life aboard the ship extremely uncomfortable.

was laden with a large amount of cargo, and the limited space remaining after accounting for the cargo had to be shared by many people, making life aboard the ship extremely uncomfortable.

making life aboard the ship extremely uncomfortable. Furthermore, diseases were rampant on board, making it unsafe, and when wars broke out in the shipping lanes they had to pass through, they had no choice but to halt their journey and wait for the situation to improve.

making it unsafe, and when wars broke out in the shipping lanes they had to pass through, they had no choice but to halt their journey and wait for the situation to improve.

wait for the situation to improve. However, these hardships and adversities could not break Hallerstein's resolve for missionary work in the New World.

adversities could not break Hallerstein's resolve for missionary work in the New World. Even during the arduous journey to China, he studied Portuguese and astronomy, diligently preparing for future missionary activities (Saje 2009, 62-73).

Even during the arduous journey to China, he studied Portuguese and astronomy, diligently preparing for future missionary activities (Saje 2009, 62-73).

activities (Saje 2009, 62-73).

2009, 62-73).

In September 1735, Hallerstein, who had left Europe with a fervent desire for missionary work in China, finally arrived in Macau, China, on August 25, 1738, after a arduous three-year journey.

after a arduous three-year journey.

Upon arriving in Macau, Hallerstein dedicated himself to studying Chinese and also created a map of Macau and its surrounding areas at the request of a Chinese official.

Hallerstein dedicated himself to studying Chinese and also created a map of Macau and its surrounding areas at the request of a Chinese official.

The following year, on March 1, 1739, Hallerstein departed Macau with four other missionaries and headed for Beijing.

Hallerstein departed Macau with four other missionaries and headed for Beijing.

When he arrived in Beijing, there were three Catholic churches (the North Church, initially not recognized as a church, was later called Beidang and recognized as a church along with the other three Catholic churches), and a total of 34 Catholic missionaries were active.

churches (the North Church, initially not recognized as a church, was later called Beidang and recognized as a church along with the other three Catholic churches), and a total of 34 Catholic missionaries were active.

recognized as a church along with the other three Catholic churches), and a total of 34 Catholic missionaries were active.

Of these, 31 were from Europe. Every year, as older missionaries passed away one by one and were replaced by new missionaries, the total number and composition of missionaries changed annually.

Every year, as older missionaries passed away one by one and were replaced by new missionaries, the total number and composition of missionaries changed annually.

as older missionaries passed away one by one and were replaced by new missionaries, the total number and composition of missionaries changed annually.

annually. As the number of new missionaries was not large, the number of European missionaries decreased to 22 by 1743, and thereafter, the number of missionaries did not increase further, with only 16 Jesuit missionaries, including Hallerstein, remaining in Beijing in 1766.

the number of European missionaries decreased to 22 by 1743, and thereafter, the number of missionaries did not increase further, with only 16 Jesuit missionaries, including Hallerstein, remaining in Beijing in 1766.

by 1743, and thereafter, the number of missionaries did not increase further, with only 16 Jesuit missionaries, including Hallerstein, remaining in Beijing in 1766.

including Hallerstein, remaining in Beijing in 1766. In addition to European missionaries, a small number of Chinese priests were engaged in missionary work, and the Russian Orthodox Church also operated in Beijing from the 1680s, but it is said to have been unsuccessful (Saje 2009, 73-79).

In addition to European missionaries, a small number of Chinese priests were engaged in missionary work, and the Russian Orthodox Church also operated in Beijing from the 1680s, but it is said to have been unsuccessful (Saje 2009, 73-79).

also operated in Beijing from the 1680s, but it is said to have been unsuccessful (Saje 2009, 73-79).

73-79). At first glance, it appears that China in the 1700s was not an easy environment for Western missionaries to spread the Gospel.

3. Hallerstein's Encounter with Hong Dae-yong_Observatory

was not an easy environment for Western missionaries to spread the Gospel.

environment.

According to Hallerstein, the Chinese authorities at the time were suspicious of missionaries. The people of Beijing were wary of missionaries, and only a small number converted to Catholicism.

The people of Beijing were wary of missionaries, and only a small number converted to Catholicism.

and only a small number converted to Catholicism.

Although Christian practices were permitted, this religious tolerance was only applied in Beijing and its periphery, within about an hour's distance from Beijing, and missionary activities in other regions were strictly prohibited.

within about an hour's distance from Beijing, and missionary activities in other regions were strictly prohibited.

However, despite this unfavorable situation, missionary activities did not cease, and the persecution of missionaries and newly converted Catholics by the government intensified daily.

and the persecution of missionaries and newly converted Catholics by the government intensified daily.

daily. Missionaries risked their lives, and Chinese Christians were imprisoned or forced to renounce their Catholic faith through torture.

torture. In addition to corporal punishment, they were also threatened with the confiscation of their property or expulsion from China.

confiscation of their property or expulsion from China.

expulsion from China. In 1749, missionaries arrested in various parts of China were executed, and Hallerstein, along with another missionary, Felix da Rocha, was accused of distributing religious books and paintings to Christians residing in Beijing.

and Hallerstein, along with another missionary, Felix da Rocha, was accused of distributing religious books and paintings to Christians residing in Beijing.

Felix da Rocha, was accused of distributing religious books and paintings to Christians residing in Beijing.

was accused of distributing religious books and paintings to Christians residing in Beijing.

They were summoned to the judicial tribunal but narrowly escaped punishment due to the Emperor's intervention.

However, it was not only the unfavorable political situation in China that troubled the Jesuit missionaries. Their difficulties were exacerbated by the distrust and criticism from the Roman Catholic congregations.

However, it was not only the unfavorable political situation in China that troubled the Jesuit missionaries. Their difficulties were exacerbated by the distrust and criticism from the Roman Catholic congregations.

Their difficulties were exacerbated by the distrust and criticism from the Roman Catholic congregations.

from the Roman Catholic congregations. Without proper knowledge of the actual events occurring in China, the Roman Catholic congregations criticized the Jesuit missionaries stationed in China for their passive approach to missionary work and expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that Christian practices were not strictly observed in Beijing.

the Roman Catholic congregations criticized the Jesuit missionaries stationed in China for their passive approach to missionary work and expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that Christian practices were not strictly observed in Beijing.

for their passive approach to missionary work and expressed dissatisfaction with the fact that Christian practices were not strictly observed in Beijing.

not strictly observed in Beijing. When Hallerstein arrived in Beijing, the overall situation was extremely unfavorable for the Jesuits to continue their missionary activities.

the overall situation was extremely unfavorable for the Jesuits to continue their missionary activities.

the overall situation was extremely unfavorable for the Jesuits to continue their missionary activities. Not only was the political situation in Beijing unfavorable for missionary work, but they also received criticism and reprimands from the Pope and congregations in Rome, whom they had hoped would be their strong supporters, making missionary work in Beijing in the 18th century inevitably difficult (Saje 2009, 80-82).

Not only was the political situation in Beijing unfavorable for missionary work, but they also received criticism and reprimands from the Pope and congregations in Rome, whom they had hoped would be their strong supporters, making missionary work in Beijing in the 18th century inevitably difficult (Saje 2009, 80-82).

from the Pope and congregations in Rome, whom they had hoped would be their strong supporters, making missionary work in Beijing in the 18th century inevitably difficult (Saje 2009, 80-82).

making missionary work in Beijing in the 18th century inevitably difficult (Saje 2009, 80-82).

2009, 80-82).

However, the reason the Jesuit missionaries could remain in Beijing even under such dire circumstances was, first and foremost, due to their outstanding scientific expertise, and second, due to the discernment of the Chinese Emperor who recognized this. Emperor Qianlong, who succeeded his father Emperor Yongzheng to the throne, took to heart his father's advice that Europeans were useful within the imperial palace. He therefore wished to keep the Jesuit missionaries by his side (Saje 2009, 80), which presented a golden opportunity for the Jesuit missionaries to continue their missionary activities in China. Starting in the 17th century, China began to show great interest in the physical world and practical sciences, an interest that was particularly focused on astronomy, an area where academic capabilities were lacking. The Jesuit missionaries who arrived in Beijing at that time possessed specialized knowledge not only in astronomy but also in various other fields such as mathematics, music, art, mechanics, construction, and medicine. These strengths of theirs shone as tools for their missionary work (Saje 2009, 83). The Chinese Emperor, as well as high-ranking officials, turned a blind eye to the Jesuit missionaries regarding religion, yet they showed great interest in the missionaries' academic expertise. Therefore, Jesuit missionaries, including Hallerstein, actively participated in academic activities to first gain their trust before spreading the Gospel.

Indeed, from 1644 to 1775, the directors of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau (Qintianjian), responsible for astronomy and calendar calculations in the Qing court, were Jesuits (Shin Ik-cheol 2013, 453). Hallerstein himself was granted the Chinese name Liu Songling (劉松齡) by the Chinese imperial court and began working at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau in the palace in December 1743, after the Portuguese missionary André Pereira passed away. Subsequently, when Ignatius Kogler, the head of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, passed away on May 6, 1746, Hallerstein succeeded him as the overall head of the office. While the fact that Jesuit missionaries held the overall responsibility for the Imperial Astronomical Bureau provided them with an opportunity to gain respect and trust from the local Chinese people and to communicate with them deeply on an academic level, it also unintentionally led to envy, jealousy, and suspicion from local officials.

Chinese officials were greatly displeased that foreign missionaries held high positions in the imperial court for an extended period. Despite the significant contributions of the missionaries' academic expertise to the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, they sought to discredit them and expel them from the court rather than support them. Hallerstein also found himself in difficult situations due to the scheming of jealous Chinese officials, but the presence of the Jesuit missionaries was not so fragile as to be endangered by mere schemes. Their influence on Chinese scholarship was immense, and consequently, the Emperor's trust in them was profound. Like other missionaries who had served as heads of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, Hallerstein worked for the advancement of Chinese astronomy and science under the favor of the Chinese Emperor until his death on October 29, 1774.

Hong Dae-yong

Damheon Hong Dae-yong was born in the spring of 1731, the seventh year of King Yeongjo's reign, in the third lunar month, in Suchon Village, Susin-myeon, Cheonan-gun, Chungcheong Province, to his father Hong Yeok and mother Kim of the Cheongpung clan. Born into an influential family, he grew up without hardship. In 1742, at the age of twelve, he entered Seoksil Seowon and began studying under his teacher Kim Won-haeng. As he was born into a family that had held official positions for generations, it was naturally expected that Hong Dae-yong would also become an official and serve the nation. However, he harbored different aspirations than other yangban sons.

Rather than focusing on the rote memorization of classical texts for the civil service examinations, he wished to dedicate himself to the study of the Confucian classics. Thus, Hong Dae-yong spent his teens and twenties immersed in scholarly pursuits. Then, in 1759, at the age of 29, he began to create scientific inventions that would leave a lasting mark on Korean history.

While visiting his father, who was serving as the magistrate of Naju, Hong Dae-yong met the Silhak scholar Na Gyeong-jeok. He was greatly impressed by Na's character and scientific knowledge and became engrossed in the creation of an armillary sphere and a self-striking clock with him. With the financial support of his father, Hong Yeok, and in collaboration with Na Gyeong-jeok, he completed two armillary spheres and two self-striking clocks three years later in 1762. Hong Dae-yong

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

Hong Dae-yong

Damheon Hong Dae-yong was born in the spring of 1731, the seventh year of King Yeongjo's reign, in the third lunar month, in Suchon Village, Susin-myeon, Cheonan-gun, Chungcheong Province, to his father Hong Yeok and mother Kim of the Cheongpung clan. Born into an influential family, he grew up without hardship. In 1742, at the age of twelve, he entered Seoksil Seowon and began studying under his teacher Kim Won-haeng. As he was born into a family that had held official positions for generations, it was naturally expected that Hong Dae-yong would also become an official and serve the nation. However, he harbored different aspirations than other yangban sons.

Rather than focusing on the rote memorization of classical texts for the civil service examinations, he wished to dedicate himself to the study of the Confucian classics. Thus, Hong Dae-yong spent his teens and twenties immersed in scholarly pursuits. Then, in 1759, at the age of 29, he began to create scientific inventions that would leave a lasting mark on Korean history.

While visiting his father, who was serving as the magistrate of Naju, Hong Dae-yong met the Silhak scholar Na Gyeong-jeok. He was greatly impressed by Na's character and scientific knowledge and became engrossed in the creation of an armillary sphere and a self-striking clock with him. With the financial support of his father, Hong Yeok, and in collaboration with Na Gyeong-jeok, he completed two armillary spheres and two self-striking clocks three years later in 1762. Hong Dae-yong

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

After installing these in his hometown village of Suchon, he named it Nongsu-gak (Kim Tae-jun, 1988).

From a young age, Hong Dae-yong, who turned away from the state examinations for official positions and dedicated himself to self-study and scientific studies according to his own convictions, had a golden opportunity in his mid-thirties to travel to Beijing.

In June 1765, his uncle, Hong Eok (洪檍), was appointed as the Secretary (書狀官) of the Joseon mission to Beijing,

Hong Dae-yong was able to accompany the expedition to Beijing in his capacity as an aide to his uncle.

For Hong Dae-yong, who had abandoned the state examinations early on based on his firm beliefs, the Beijing mission was perhaps an opportunity he could not even dream of, but

since Hong Eok, who had played with him since childhood and later shared his thoughts on scholarship, recommended him as a subordinate official, he was given the opportunity to travel to Beijing.

Thus, joining the delegation, Hong Dae-yong left Suchon on October 12, 1765, arrived in Seoul three days later, and departed Seoul on November 2 of the following month.

He arrived in Beijing on December 27 and stayed for approximately 60 days until March 1, 1766.

He returned to Seoul on April 27, 1766 (Kim 2017, 505). During his roughly two-month stay in Beijing, Hong Dae-yong visited the Southern Jesuit Church (Nantianzhu Tang) multiple times and interacted with Western missionaries.

While sightseeing in Beijing, he met Chinese scholars such as Yan Chengyun and Pan Jingjun and formed friendships.

Upon returning from his Beijing trip, Hong Dae-yong wrote the "Damheon Yeongi," a record of his travels, and continued to interact with Chinese scholars.

Still uninterested in official positions, Hong Dae-yong enjoyed conversing with Silhak scholars such as Yi Deok-mu, Park Je-ga, Park Ji-won, and Jeong Cheol-jo.

Concurrently, he authored philosophical novels such as "Uisanmundap" and "Juhyesuyeong," as well as mathematics books.

He reportedly passed away from a stroke in 1783 at the age of 53, after holding an official position in his late 40s.

The Fulfillment of the Encounter: Three Meetings

Thus, two individuals born and raised in different cultural spheres, the West and the East, met at the intersection point of Beijing.

After Hong Dae-yong arrived in Beijing in December 1765, the two had three meetings in January and February 1766.

Upon returning to Joseon from Beijing, Hong Dae-yong recorded the three meetings with Hallenstein in detail in his "Yeonhaengnok" (Travelogue).

Hallenstein, in letters to his family in Europe, wrote about Hong Dae-yong.

Based on the writings left by both men during their lifetimes, we will attempt to recreate the three meetings between Hallenstein and Hong Dae-yong that took place in Beijing.

Location of the Encounter: Southern Jesuit Church in Beijing

The place where Hong Dae-yong and Hallenstein met was the Southern Jesuit Church in Beijing.

This was one of the places that Joseon missions to Beijing routinely visited in the 18th century.

The Southern Church was located closest to the Yuhwa-gwan (玉河館), where the mission stayed, and was thus a place where Joseon envoys concentrated their visits.

At the time of Hong Dae-yong's visit to Beijing, Hallenstein and Gogaiesil were residing at the Southern Jesuit Church, and thus their meeting began with the relationship of host and guest.

The Southern Jesuit Church in Beijing is known to have been built in the early 17th century by the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci at the request of Emperor Shenzong of the Ming Dynasty.

Matteo Ricci, who arrived in Beijing in 1610, presented various Western items to Emperor Shenzong of the Ming Dynasty.

These included maps, religious icons, Western musical instruments, and clocks. The Emperor was particularly fond of the clock.

When the gifted clock broke down, the Emperor summoned the Western missionaries who had initially presented it to repair it.

To prepare for future breakdowns, the Emperor then provided a residence for Western missionaries in Beijing and kept them close.

The residence that Emperor Shenzong bestowed upon Matteo Ricci and other Jesuit missionaries at that time is the present-day Southern Jesuit Church.

Although the Southern Cathedral has undergone repeated processes of damage and reconstruction, it has not maintained its original appearance.

However, the footsteps of those visiting the cathedral continue.

It is said that they do.

Figure 1. Southern Cathedral in Beijing (Source: Christians in China)

January 9, 1766, First Meeting

Just as most Joseon envoys visited the Southern Cathedral immediately upon arriving in Beijing,

Hong Daeyong also visited the Southern Cathedral a few days after arriving in Beijing.

On January 9, 1766, Hong Daeyong visited the Southern Cathedral with Yi Deokseong, an official from the Bureau of Astronomy (觀象監),

and the interpreter Hong Myeongbo. Hong Daeyong was first struck by the mysterious and exotic appearance of the cathedral's

3. Hallerstein and Hong Daeyong's Meeting_Gogwansangdae

interior and exterior. Moving further inside the building, he met Hallerstein and Gogaesil, the proprietors of the Southern Cathedral,

who were given Chinese names by the imperial court, and were called Yu Songnyeong and Pouguan, respectively.

Hong Daeyong, who was meeting Western missionaries for the first time, and indeed seeing Westerners for the first time, recorded the following in his travelogue:

This is the only record of Hallerstein's appearance and is well-known among Slovenian scholars who study Hallerstein.

Yu Songnyeong was 62 years old, and Pouguan was 64. Although their beards and hair were white, their complexions were youthful, and the light in their deep-set eyes was piercing, just like the figures seen in murals. They were both bald, and their clothing and hats were in the Qing style.

Yu Songnyeong wore a bright blue hat, and Pouguan wore a dark white hat.

Yu Songnyeong held the rank of a third-grade official, and Pouguan a sixth-grade official, both serving in the Imperial Astronomical Bureau (欽天監).

Both had been in China for 26 years, and after sailing tens of thousands of li, they finally landed in Fujian (Yupo Mundap, 1974).

Hong Daeyong, who was thirty-four, described Yu Songnyeong, who was sixty-two, as having a youthful complexion and piercing eyes, suggesting that Yu Songnyeong appeared to be diligent in self-care and mentally alert despite his advanced age.

Given that Hong Daeyong remarked that the appearance of Yu Songnyeong and Pouguan was identical to the Westerners depicted in the murals adorning the cathedral walls, it is presumed that Yu Songnyeong and Pouguan had Western features and were dressed in Qing court attire according to Chinese imperial customs.

Just as Hong Daeyong described the figures of Hallerstein and Gogaesil after returning from Beijing,

Hallerstein also wrote a description of Hong Daeyong, Yi Deokseong, and Hong Myeongbo in a letter to his brother in Europe.

Yoo Song-ryeong held a third-rank position, and Pou was a sixth-rank official, both serving in the Directorate of Astronomy (Heumcheongam).

Both had already been in China for 26 years.

They finally landed on shore after sailing tens of thousands of li, arriving in Fujian.

(Yoo Pou Mun-daep, 1974).

Hong Dae-yong, who was thirty-four, described Yoo Song-ryeong, sixty-two, as having a healthy complexion like a child and eyes with a piercing gaze.

This suggests that in Hong Dae-yong's eyes, Yoo Song-ryeong, despite his advanced age, was a person diligent in self-care and possessed of a sharp mind and spirit.

Boah, in Hong Dae-yong's eyes, Yusongryeong was diligent in self-management even at an advanced age and

Based on Hong Dae-yong's remark that the appearances of Yoo Song-ryeong and Pou resembled the Westerners depicted in the murals throughout the Catholic church, it can be inferred that Yoo Song-ryeong and Pou had Western features and were dressed in Qing dynasty attire in accordance with the customs of the Chinese imperial court.

Based on Hong Dae-yong's remark that the appearances of Yoo Song-ryeong and Pou resembled the Westerners depicted in the murals throughout the Catholic church, it can be inferred that Yoo Song-ryeong and Pou had Western features and were dressed in Qing dynasty attire in accordance with the customs of the Chinese imperial court.

Based on Hong Dae-yong's remark that the appearances of Yoo Song-ryeong and Pou resembled the Westerners depicted in the murals throughout the Catholic church, it can be inferred that Yoo Song-ryeong and Pou had Western features and were dressed in Qing dynasty attire in accordance with the customs of the Chinese imperial court.

It is presumed that Yoo Song-ryeong and Pou had Western features and were dressed in Qing dynasty attire in accordance with the customs of the Chinese imperial court.

It is presumed that Yoo Song-ryeong and Pou had Western features and were dressed in Qing dynasty attire in accordance with the customs of the Chinese imperial court.

Just as Hong Dae-yong wrote descriptions of Hallenstein and Gogeislai upon his return from Beijing,

Hallenstein, in a letter to his brother in Europe, also wrote descriptions that appear to depict Hong Dae-yong, Lee Deok-seong, and Hong Myeong-bok.

Hallenstein, in a letter to his brother in Europe, also wrote descriptions that appear to depict Hong Dae-yong, Lee Deok-seong, and Hong Myeong-bok.

Hallenstein, in a letter to his brother in Europe, also wrote descriptions that appear to depict Hong Dae-yong, Lee Deok-seong, and Hong Myeong-bok.

... They are strong, muscular, well-built people, and good soldiers.

They dress according to ancient Chinese customs, now in robes of

peace, now in those of war(Saje 2009, 347).

While Hong Dae-yong left relatively lengthy descriptions of Hallenstein and Gogeislai, Hallenstein's two sentences above are all that he left regarding the Joseon people.

In his view, the Joseon people were perceived as good soldiers with muscular bodies and sturdy builds.

In his view, the Joseon people were perceived as good soldiers with muscular bodies and sturdy builds.

In his view, the Joseon people were perceived as good soldiers with muscular bodies and sturdy builds.

When Hong Dae-yong expressed a desire to see the inside of the Catholic church, Yoo Song-ryeong personally offered to guide him and show him around.

Upon seeing the images displayed on the walls of the Myeodang and the Catholic church, as well as various items brought from Europe, Hong Dae-yong was captivated by the strangeness and mystery of Western civilization.

Upon seeing the images displayed on the walls of the Myeodang and the Catholic church, as well as various items brought from Europe, Hong Dae-yong was captivated by the strangeness and mystery of Western civilization.

During the tour, Hallenstein handed Hong Dae-yong a book displayed on a desk, asking him to open it.

During the tour, Hallenstein handed Hong Dae-yong a book displayed on a desk, asking him to open it.

3. The Meeting Between Hallenstein and Hong Dae-yong: Observing Each Other's Countenance

The book contained writings praying for the blessings of the Emperor and his consort.

Hong Dae-yong considered this an act of flattery and was greatly disappointed by Hallenstein's behavior, which seemed to boast of actions that were contrary to reason and shameful.

Hong Dae-yong considered this an act of flattery and was greatly disappointed by Hallenstein's behavior, which seemed to boast of actions that were contrary to reason and shameful.

Although Yoo Song-ryeong was elderly and possessed profound knowledge of astronomy and calendrical science, he willingly revealed such actions contrary to reason and flattery, boasting of them to a foreigner; this is an extremely base and cowardly act, failing to shed the customs of distant foreign lands (Hong Dae-yong 2020, 352).

Although Yoo Song-ryeong was elderly and possessed profound knowledge of astronomy and calendrical science, he willingly revealed such actions contrary to reason and flattery, boasting of them to a foreigner; this is an extremely base and cowardly act, failing to shed the customs of distant foreign lands (Hong Dae-yong 2020, 352).

Although Yoo Song-ryeong was elderly and possessed profound knowledge of astronomy and calendrical science, he willingly revealed such actions contrary to reason and flattery, boasting of them to a foreigner; this is an extremely base and cowardly act, failing to shed the customs of distant foreign lands (Hong Dae-yong 2020, 352).

Although Yoo Song-ryeong was elderly and possessed profound knowledge of astronomy and calendrical science, he willingly revealed such actions contrary to reason and flattery, boasting of them to a foreigner; this is an extremely base and cowardly act, failing to shed the customs of distant foreign lands (Hong Dae-yong 2020, 352).

Although Yoo Song-ryeong was elderly and possessed profound knowledge of astronomy and calendrical science, he willingly revealed such actions contrary to reason and flattery, boasting of them to a foreigner; this is an extremely base and cowardly act, failing to shed the customs of distant foreign lands (Hong Dae-yong 2020, 352).

Hong Dae-yong must have been favorably impressed by Hallershtein's not only excellent knowledge of astronomy but also his kindness in showing them around the Catholic Church.

However, when Hallershtein, after presenting such a likeable demeanor, acted in an obsequious manner that was contrary to reason, Hong Dae-yong could not help but feel greatly disappointed in him.

Just as anyone would be disappointed upon seeing shameful behavior from someone they sought to learn from, Hong Dae-yong felt the same.

However, separate from Hong Dae-yong's disappointment with Hallershtein, there is another aspect that deserves attention.

Hong Dae-yong did not interpret Hallershtein's seemingly flattering behavior as merely a personal trait but criticized it by connecting it to the customs of the time.

This can be seen as related to the prevailing ideology of the era in East Asia, rather than solely Hong Dae-yong's personal opinion.

Korea, for a long time, was subordinate to China's world order and maintained a ruler-subject relationship.

As a vassal state, it was loyal to China and deeply embraced the Sinocentric worldview, viewing China as the center of the world and the surrounding regions as barbarians.

They believed it was their duty to transmit and teach China's advanced civilization to these peripheral areas.

The Sinocentric ideology, which had deeply permeated Joseon for a long time, became even more pronounced after the defeat of the Japanese forces in the 16th century with the aid of Ming China.

Hong Dae-yong's connection of Hallershtein's specific behavior, which he found disagreeable, not to personal traits but to the West as a whole, can be attributed to this Sinocentric ideology.

In essence, Hong Dae-yong's view of Hallershtein was that while he acknowledged and respected his scholarly achievements, he considered the Western culture from which Hallershtein originated to be inherently inferior, like that of barbarians.

On the first day, besides various paintings on the walls of the royal court, Hong Dae-yong viewed a pipe organ and a self-striking clock.

Hong Dae-yong and the other two Joseon envoys requested to see more items after viewing each one.

Although Hallershtein sometimes refused their requests, stating that some items could not be shown, they did not easily give up and persistently asked to see more.

Hallershtein showed signs of discomfort at this persistent request, but he eventually seemed to concede to the stubbornness of Hong Dae-yong and the two envoys who continued to ask.

However, he did not grant their request to see their bedrooms until the very end.

3. Hallershtein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gogwansangdae

Despite Hallershtein's discomfort and displeasure at the repeated and sometimes impolite requests from Hong Dae-yong and the two Joseon envoys, he appears to have treated them with courtesy throughout.

As noted in Hong Dae-yong's travelogue, Hallershtein and Gogaiseul reportedly escorted Hong Dae-yong and the two envoys to the very end as they departed for their lodging after their first meeting.

Figure 2. Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a Jesuit missionary from Germany (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

can be seen as originating from the Sinocentric worldview. Regarding Hallerstein

Figure 3. Portrait of Hong Dae-yong (Source: Naver Encyclopedia)

while observing him, the Western culture from which he was rooted was also considered barbarian culture.

3. Hallershtein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gogwansangdae

The portraits in Figures 2 and 3 are included to aid in visualizing Hallershtein and Hong Dae-yong in the 18th century.

As no known portrait of Hallershtein exists, the portrait of Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a Jesuit missionary from Germany, has been inserted instead.

Both Hallershtein and Adam Schall were Jesuit missionaries who worked at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau during their time in China.

Although their facial features may have differed, their appearance in Chinese imperial attire is presumed to have been similar.

Figure 3 is a portrait of Hong Dae-yong, said to have been painted by Yan Chengsheng, a scholar from the Qing Dynasty.

Second Meeting on January 19, 1766

The second meeting between Hallershtein and Hong Dae-yong took place on the 19th, about ten days after their first encounter.

In fact, Hong Dae-yong, along with Yi Deok-seong, had revisited the Southern Catholic Church less than a week later, on the 13th.

However, on that day, Hallershtein was out at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau on official business, and Gogaiseul was attending to high-ranking officials who had visited the Southern Catholic Church.

Therefore,

they could not meet.

Hong Dae-yong's second meeting with Hallershtein was scheduled for January 19, 1766, approximately ten days after their initial encounter.

However, Hong Dae-yong, accompanied by Yi Deok-seong, had already visited the Southern Catholic Church again on January 13th, less than a week after their first meeting.

On that particular day, Hallershtein was absent due to official duties at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau, and Gogaiseul was occupied entertaining visiting dignitaries.

Consequently, the meeting did not take place.

Figure 2. Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a Jesuit missionary from Germany (Source: Wikimedia Commons)

Figure 3. Portrait of Hong Dae-yong (Source: Naver Encyclopedia)

3. Hallershtein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gogwansangdae

The portraits in Figures 2 and 3 are provided as references for imagining Hallershtein and Hong Dae-yong in the 18th century.

Since no portrait of Hallershtein is known to exist, the portrait of Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a German Jesuit missionary, has been included instead.

Both Hallershtein and Adam Schall were Jesuit missionaries who served at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau while residing in China.

Although their specific facial features may have differed, it is presumed that their appearance in Chinese imperial attire would have been similar.

Figure 3 is a portrait of Hong Dae-yong, which is said to have been painted by Yan Chengsheng, a scholar from the Qing Dynasty.

Second Meeting on January 19, 1766

The second meeting between Hallershtein and Hong Dae-yong occurred on the 19th, approximately ten days after their initial encounter.

In fact, Hong Dae-yong, along with Yi Deok-seong, had revisited the Southern Catholic Church on the 13th, less than a week after their first meeting.

However, on that day, Hallershtein was away at the Imperial Astronomical Bureau on official business, and Gogaiseul was occupied entertaining visiting dignitaries.

Therefore,

the meeting did not take place.

Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong had to leave Cheonjudang, only making arrangements for their next meeting.

The second meeting between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong, which took place on the 19th, had a completely different atmosphere from the first.

When Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong first visited Nam Cheonjudang, Hong Myeong-bok,

Hallerstein welcomed them warmly.

However, during the second meeting, despite it being a pre-arranged appointment,

he showed a refusal to meet.

Although Hallerstein and Gogaesel must have been informed by the gatekeeper that the Joseon envoys were scheduled to visit again on the 19th,

they refused to meet Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong, who visited Nam Cheonjudang that day.

When Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong visited Nam Cheonjudang for their second meeting, the gatekeeper

informed them that Hallerstein and Gogaesel had been observing the heavens all night and had only gone to bed in the morning, and were still asleep.

Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong had no choice but to wait for the officials to come out of their chambers.

After waiting for a long time with no news, they had a list of gifts prepared and asked the gatekeeper to deliver it.

However, the officials stated that they could not accept another gift as they had not yet reciprocated the previous one, and that they were too tired to meet today and requested them to visit again later.

When Hong Dae-yong requested another meeting through the gatekeeper, the only response was that they could not meet today.

Finally, Hong Dae-yong wrote the following short message and asked the gatekeeper to deliver it to the officials.

“We have a sincere desire to admire and learn from your high virtue, yet we have come for a second visit and could not see you, feeling as if we have committed some sin.

We are overcome with shame. We humbly request that you understand and forgive us as we bid a final farewell and do not intend to visit again (Hong Dae-yong 2020, 446).”

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Meeting_Gwanseongdae

Upon receiving the note, Hallerstein changed his mind and hurried out to meet Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong.

Finally seated face-to-face in the inner chamber, Hong Dae-yong and

Hallerstein, both not fluent in Chinese, decided to communicate through writing with the help of a scholar staying at Cheonjudang.

They discussed Catholicism and astronomy. Hong Dae-yong asked about the tenets of Catholicism, to which Hallerstein replied, “The study of the Lord teaches people to love God and to love others as oneself (Hong Dae-yong 2020, 447).”

Subsequently, Hong Dae-yong began to speak enthusiastically about his primary interest, astronomy. He

mentioned that he had imitated the armillary sphere (Huncheonui) but encountered many problems, and asked if he could examine the astronomical instruments in Beijing.

Hallerstein replied that while there were various instruments at the Gwanseongdae (Observatory), access was strictly controlled, and outsiders were not permitted entry.

Instead, he showed Hong Dae-yong the armillary sphere and telescope at Cheonjudang, responding to Hong Dae-yong's eagerness to learn as much as possible.

As evening fell, Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong left behind the gifts they had brought, intending to arrange another meeting with Hallerstein before their departure.

Hallerstein requested them to visit next month, as there were no more available days in January.

As they left Nam Cheonjudang, Yi Deok-seong expressed his disappointment at not being warmly welcomed by the Western missionaries, as follows:

“Previously, people from Cheonjudang would greet our people most warmly and lavishly entertain them with abundant food, and often present considerable gifts of Western produce. Recently, however, they seem to find our people's requests bothersome and their hospitality has become so lax. This is truly infuriating (Hong Dae-yong 2020, 453).”

February 2, 1766: Third Meeting

Hong Dae-yong, accompanied by Yi Deok-seong, visited Nam Cheonjudang again and was once more seated face-to-face with Hallerstein in the inner chamber.

This time, they again summoned a scholar to facilitate communication. While waiting for the scholar to arrive in the inner chamber, Hallerstein asked Hong Dae-yong questions about Joseon.

He inquired about the locations of Tsushima and Busan, and whether Joseon and Japan had pendulum clocks. After the scholar arrived in the inner chamber, they had a brief discussion with Yi Deok-seong about the method of creating calendars.

Subsequently, Hong Dae-yong requested Hallerstein to allow him to see Western mathematics books, brushes, a pendulum clock, and a compass.

As evening fell, Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong prepared to depart, noting that their return to Joseon was imminent and this would be their last meeting.

He stated that it would be. Hallerstein did not show any sign of disappointment,

and in return for the *paebaek* he had received, he gave items from the West

to Hong Dae-yong and Yi Deok-seong. He added that as exchanges with the West had been infrequent recently,

he was offering a modest return. Yi Deok-seong, under royal orders,

intended to learn the calendar in detail and acquire astronomical instruments and books to take back to Joseon.

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gugwansangdae

However, due to Hallerstein's uncooperative attitude, he thought he would have no choice but to return empty-handed.

He had no choice but to return empty-handed.

Figure 4. Ferdinand Verbiest, a Jesuit missionary from Belgium in the 17th century,

painted the *Gugwansangdae* (Source: UNESCO

Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal)

Evaluation of the Encounter

Based on Hong Dae-yong's *Yeonhaenggi*, which meticulously records his three previous encounters with Hallerstein,

we have examined the meeting between the two men. How, then, can their encounter be evaluated?

As can be readily seen from Hong Dae-yong's writings, the encounter was less a pleasant one

and more an encounter filled with disappointment and discomfort. Although they were in the same space, Namcheon Catholic Church,

their minds were in entirely different places,

and as the encounter progressed, the joy disappeared,

leaving only discomfort and disappointment, as the two men failed to understand each other's feelings.

Initially, the group led by Hong Dae-yong, who visited Namcheon Catholic Church,

hoped to hear and learn as much as possible about the West from the Jesuit missionaries.

In particular, they were very interested in astronomy, and thus hoped for as many meetings as possible

with Hallerstein, who was in charge of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau (Qintianjian) in the Qing court.

However, unfortunately, Hallerstein's feelings were not aligned with theirs.

Hallerstein was busy with his duties in the Qing court and the constant stream of visitors to Namcheon Catholic Church,

making it difficult for him to be a good teacher and impart extensive knowledge to them.

However, it was not that Hallerstein initially avoided and disliked meeting with Hong Dae-yong and other Joseon envoys.

A letter he sent to his brother in Europe reveals that he himself was very interested in Joseon and Japan,

places he had never visited, and that he asked Hong Dae-yong's group many questions about Joseon and Japan.

However, this was merely Hallerstein's personal interest and not a shared interest with Hong Dae-yong

and the rest of the delegation. While he could have kindly and thoroughly explained his own country and

neighboring countries, considering Hallerstein's curiosity about Joseon and Japan,

Hong Dae-yong and his group were too busy satisfying their own curiosities

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_Gugwansangdae

to even consider the other party's feelings. The following is an excerpt from a letter Hallerstein sent

from Peking to his brother in Europe, containing his thoughts on the Joseon people, presumed to include Hong Dae-yong.

Your Eminence also asks what news we have from Japan of the

Christian faith. I answer that we have none at all. Although Japan is

very close, here there reigns such silence about it as if it did not even

exist. Delegates arrive from Siam, Cochinchina, Vietnam, and from

Liuqiu (or Riukiu), that is, islands between the Philipines and Japan.

Koreans arrive each year, but no one has ever come here from Japan.

The Koreans say that on a clear day they can see the Japanese

mountains, though they know nothing about Japan; nearer to the truth

is that they do not wish to say anything, as they are the craftiest people

under the sun. Though they will pose questions for an entire hour, they

never answer a single one. When they visit our house, and they always

visit it immediately when they come to Peking, they first demand ink

and a writing instrument. Because none among them knows how to

speak Chinese, they communicate in writing. We answer them through

a servant. They often pose well-founded questions about astronomy. If

I tell them to leave their questions that I will respond to them via

express courier, they do not want to leave a single written character,

and often prefer to return. They are strong, muscular, well-built

speak Chinese, they communicate in writing. We answer them through

a servant. They often pose well-founded questions about astronomy. If

I tell them to leave their questions that I will respond to them via

express courier, they do not want to leave a single written character,

and often prefer to return. They are strong, muscular, well-built

people, and good soldiers. They dress according to ancient Chinese

customs, now in robes of peace, now in those of war. It was never

possible to subjugate them, yet neither could they unburden

themselves of yearly taxes. I would write more if I did not fear

interruption by the courier demanding the letter. In Peking, October 6,

1757, at midnight(Saje 2009, 347).

If Hong Dae-yong and his group wished to learn advanced Western astronomical knowledge from Hallstatt, Hallstatt hoped to learn about the situation in Japan through them. As can be inferred from the first part of the letter excerpt, the Jesuit mission was active not only in China but also in Japan at the time. However, in the case of Japan, harsh persecution of Christianity began with the establishment of the Tokugawa regime in the early 17th century, and due to thorough surveillance, all religious rituals and proselytizing activities had to be conducted in secret.

Furthermore, in 1635, the Sakoku Edict was issued, declaring a severance from the outside world, which almost completely cut off contact between Japan and the West, making it impossible for outsiders to hear about missionary work in Japan.

Although missionary work in China at the time was not going smoothly either, the situation in Japan was relatively freer compared to China, and contact with the West was still maintained. Therefore, the European Jesuits likely hoped to hear even small news about the missionary situation in Japan through the Jesuit missionaries in Peking.

As can be seen, the Jesuit missionary work at that time was not only in China but also in Japan.

However, in Japan, with the advent of the Tokugawa regime in the early 17th century,

harsh persecution of Christianity began, and due to thorough

surveillance, all religious rituals and proselytizing activities had to be conducted in secret.

Furthermore, in 1635, the Sakoku Edict was issued, declaring a severance from the outside world,

almost completely cutting off exchange between Japan and the West.

Consequently, there was no way for news about missionary work in Japan to reach the outside world.

While the missionary work in China at that time was not going smoothly either,

3. Hallerstein and Hong Daeyong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

compared to the missionary situation in Japan, it was relatively free, and exchanges with the West

were still maintained, so the European Jesuits hoped to hear even small pieces of news about the Japanese mission through the Jesuits in Beijing.

This was not the only reason; Hallerstein was also a figure deeply interested in missionary work in the New World, and he could not help but be curious about news from Japan.

Therefore, when he met Hong Daeyong and other Joseon envoys, he tried to inquire about Japan and hear the news,

but as indicated in the letters, they reportedly could not provide proper answers.

While constantly bombarding them with questions for an hour about what he was curious about,

Hallerstein received no proper answers to any of his questions.

It seems that Hallerstein was quite offended by the attitude of these Joseon envoys,

He would have relentlessly asked questions for an hour about what he was curious about.

as he described them as the most cunning people under heaven.

The reason why Hong Daeyong and his group did not properly answer Hallerstein's questions

was likely not due to any deliberate intention, but rather because their desire to hear and learn as much as possible about Western civilization took precedence.

Yi Deok-seong, as an astronomer at the Astronomical Bureau, had a mission to return after learning about advanced Western astronomy,

and although Hong Daeyong was not an official at the Astronomical Bureau, he had a personal interest in astronomy,

so both were eager to learn. Thus,

without any regard for Hallerstein's feelings, they focused solely on resolving their own curiosities,

eventually offending Hallerstein. In response to Hallerstein's curt attitude,

they also felt offended, and the meeting concluded.

Reviewing Hong Daeyong's writings, Hallerstein, throughout the meeting, could not hide his displeasure at the constant demands of the Joseon envoys,

yet he never showed an outright refusal to their requests. Moreover,

in a letter to his brother, he praised the astronomical knowledge possessed by Hong Daeyong and Yi Deok-seong.

If Hong Daeyong and Yi Deok-seong had shown even a little empathy and understanding towards Hallerstein's feelings,

would their three meetings have taken a completely different course? Although busy with affairs of the Qing court,

if Hallerstein had taken a liking to Hong Daeyong and his group, would he not have made an effort to spare time amidst his busy schedule to impart his astronomical knowledge to them?

The encounter between Hallerstein and Hong Daeyong can be assessed as a regrettable meeting in that they not only had different interests,

but also failed to understand and empathize with each other's differences.

Conclusion

There is no adjective that better describes Hallerstein and Hong Daeyong's meeting in Beijing than 'astonishing.'

Hallerstein, born in distant Slovenia, traveled across seas and mountains to reach Beijing,

and Hong Daeyong, who had long abandoned the civil service examination and pursued his own studies, was able to travel to Beijing thanks to his uncle.

3. Hallerstein and Hong Daeyong's Encounter_Gwan Sang Dae

Although he was busy with official duties, if he had liked Hong Dae-yong and his group, he would have

made time amidst his busy schedule to impart his astronomical knowledge to them.

Hallstatt and Hong Dae-yong's meeting was a missed opportunity not only because they were interested in different things,

but also because they failed to understand and empathize with each other's differing perspectives.

This encounter can be evaluated as a regrettable meeting.

Moving Forward

No adjective could better describe the meeting between Hallstatt and Hong Dae-yong in Beijing than 'extraordinary'.

Born in distant Slovenia, Hallstatt traveled across seas and over mountains to arrive in Beijing, while Hong Dae-yong,

Born in distant Slovenia, Hallstatt traveled across seas and over mountains to arrive in Beijing, while Hong Dae-yong,

had abandoned his classical studies to pursue his own research, and thanks to his uncle, he was able to travel to Beijing.

3. Hallstatt and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter: Observation of the High Heavens

Hong Tae-yong, whose name is mentioned, had a peculiar encounter. In today's age of developed transportation, it might not seem unusual, but in the distant 18th century, the meeting of a Slovenian and a Korean in a third country, China, becomes increasingly strange the more one contemplates it. As this encounter was by no means easily achievable, it was highly valuable yet left much to be desired. Although they were in the same space, one was focused on missionary work and the other on astronomy, leading to more discomfort and disappointment than empathy and enjoyment in their interaction. Just as Hong Tae-yong met like-minded Chinese scholars at Yulinchang and maintained contact even after returning to Joseon, if Hallerstein and Hong had also found common ground and spent enjoyable time at the Catholic Church, and if that relationship had continued after returning to Joseon, what impact would their encounter have had on our country? Perhaps it would have left direct traces of Western missionaries in the history of our country in the 18th century.

Just as an individual's life is shaped by a myriad of encounters, the international community in which we live today is also formed by countless encounters. Among the numerous encounters that have occurred in the international community from the past to the present, some have led to cooperation and peace, while others have fueled hatred and war. Why is it that countless encounters, which share the commonality of meeting and communicating with others who are different from oneself, ultimately yield such different outcomes? The key to creating that difference likely lies in the willingness not only to acknowledge the existence of oneself and the other participating in the encounter but also to strive for their harmonious coexistence. Although the encounter between Hallerstein and Hong Tae-yong in the 18th century had many regrettable aspects, using this encounter as a reference, Korea must strive continuously to foster better encounters and relationships with the West as well as with other others within the international community. It is thought that by acknowledging their differences and considering their perspectives, we can build a more profound relationship with them.

References

Catholic Internet Good News. 2015. “GOODNEWS Archive - [Martyrdom] Beijing's Southern Church and Our Country.”

http://pds.catholic.or.kr/pdsm/bbs_view.asp?num=84&id=151532&menu=4831.

Kim, Tae-jun. 1988. *Hong Tae-yong*. Seoul: Hangilsa.

Park, Sung-rae. 2003. “Hong Tae-yong, the First to Advocate Heliocentrism in the East.”

Shin, Ik-chul. 2013. “Encounters between Yeonhaengsa in the 18th Century and Western Missionaries.”

*Journal of Korean Studies* (51): 445-486.

Onnuri Mission Headquarters, et al. 2015. *Why Mission?* Seoul: Duranno.

Hong Tae-yong; translated by Jeong Hun-sik. 2020. *Juhayeolbyeongyeonhaengrok*. Seoul: Gyeongjin Publishing.

3. Hallerstein and Hong Tae-yong's Encounter_Gogwansangdae

Hong Tae-yong Science Hall. https://www.cheonan.go.kr/damheon.do.

The Korean Classics Research Institute Database. https://db.itkc.or.kr/

Baker, Donald L. 1982. "Jesuit Science through Korean Eyes". *The Journal of Korean Studies* 4, 207-239.

Cieslik, Hubert. 1954. “Early Jesuit Missionaries in Japan 1 - St. Francis Xavier.” In Francis Britto's *All About Francis Xavier*.

Retrieved from http://pweb.cc.sophia.ac.jp/britto/xavier.

Jesuit Conference of Asia Pacific. https://jcapsj.org/about-us/our-history/.

Južnič, Stanislav. 2008. "Letters from Augustin Hallerstein, an eighteenth century Jesuit astronomer in Beijing". *Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage* 11 (3), 219-225.

Kim, Minho. 2017. "One from the East, One from the West: The Uneasy Encounters between Hong Tae-yong and Augustin Hallerstein in Mid-Eighteenth Century Beijing." *Acta Koreana* 20 (2), 501-528. muse.jhu.edu/article/756477.

Ledyard, Gari. 2011. "Hong Taeyong and His Peking Memoir". *Korean Studies* 6 (1), 63-103.

It is about the presence of the other, and furthermore, the will to strive for their harmonious coexistence. The encounter between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong in the 18th century had many regrettable aspects in various ways, but using this encounter as a reference, Korea must continuously strive to build better encounters and relationships with others in the international community, not only with the West, but also with other others.

It is about the presence of the other, and furthermore, the will to strive for their harmonious coexistence. The encounter between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong in the 18th century had many regrettable aspects in various ways, but using this encounter as a reference, Korea must continuously strive to build better encounters and relationships with others in the international community, not only with the West, but also with other others.

It is about the presence of the other, and furthermore, the will to strive for their harmonious coexistence. The encounter between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong in the 18th century had many regrettable aspects in various ways, but using this encounter as a reference, Korea must continuously strive to build better encounters and relationships with others in the international community, not only with the West, but also with other others.

It is about the presence of the other, and furthermore, the will to strive for their harmonious coexistence. The encounter between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong in the 18th century had many regrettable aspects in various ways, but using this encounter as a reference, Korea must continuously strive to build better encounters and relationships with others in the international community, not only with the West, but also with other others.

It is about the presence of the other, and furthermore, the will to strive for their harmonious coexistence. The encounter between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong in the 18th century had many regrettable aspects in various ways, but using this encounter as a reference, Korea must continuously strive to build better encounters and relationships with others in the international community, not only with the West, but also with other others.

It is about the presence of the other, and furthermore, the will to strive for their harmonious coexistence. The encounter between Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong in the 18th century had many regrettable aspects in various ways, but using this encounter as a reference, Korea must continuously strive to build better encounters and relationships with others in the international community, not only with the West, but also with other others.

If we focus a little more on recognizing their differences and understanding their feelings, we will be able to build a better relationship with them.

It is thought that we can build a better relationship with them.

References

Catholic Internet Good News. 2015. “GOODNEWS Archive - [Martyrdom] Beijing’s

Nantian Church and Our Country.”

http://pds.catholic.or.kr/pdsm/bbs_view.asp?num=84&id=151

532&menu=4831.

Kim, Tae-jun. 1988. 《Hong Dae-yong》. Seoul: Hangilsa.

Park, Sung-rae. 2003. “Hong Dae-yong, the First Proponent of the Theory of Earth's Rotation in East Asia.”

Shin, Ik-chul. 2013. “Encounter between 18th Century Yeon-haengsa and Western Missionaries.”

<Korean Society of Literature> (51): 445-486.

Onnuri 2000 Mission Headquarters et al. 2015. 《Why Mission?》. Seoul: Duranno Seowon.

Duranno Seowon.

Hong, Dae-yong. Translated by Jeong, Hun-sik. 2020. 《Annotated Eubyeong Yeonhaengrok》. Seoul: Kyungjin Publishing.

3. Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong's Encounter_High-Level Mutual Relations

Hong Dae-yong Science Hall. https://www.cheonan.go.kr/damheon.do.

The Korean Classics Research Institute. https://db.itkc.or.kr/

Baker, Donald L. 1982. "Jesuit Science through Korean Eyes". The

Journal of Korean Studies 4, 207-239.

Cieslik, Hubert. 1954. “Early Jesuit Missionaries in Japan 1 - St. Francis

Xavier.” In Francis Britto‘s All About Francis Xavier.

Retrieved from http://pweb.cc.sophia.ac.jp/britto/xavier.

Jesuit Conference of Asia Pacific. https://jcapsj.org/about-us/our-

history/.

Južnič, Stanislav. 2008. "Letters from Augustin Hallerstein, an

eighteenth century Jesuit astronomer in Beijing". Journal of

Astronomical History and Heritage 11 (3), 219-225.

Kim, Minho. 2017. "One from the East, One from the West: The

Uneasy Encounters between Hong Tae-yong and Augustin

Hallerstein in Mid-Eighteenth Century Beijing." Acta

Koreana 20 (2), 501-528. muse.jhu.edu/article/756477.

Ledyard, Gari. 2011. "Hong Taeyong and His Peking Memoir". Korean

Studies 6 (1), 63-103.

Midzunoe, Ikuko. 2005. “Christian and Anti-Christian Tracts in the

Early Seventeenth Century.” In Francis Britto‘s All About

Francis Xavier. Retrieved from

http://pweb.cc.sophia.ac.jp/britto/xavier.

Modelski, George. 1978. "The Long Cycle of Global Politics and the

Nation-State". Comparative Studies in Society and History 20

(2), 214-235.

Morris, James Harry. 2018. Rethinking the history of conversion to

Christianity in Japan, 1549-1644.

http://hdl.handle.net/10023/15875.

Saje, Mitja. 2015. “The importance of Ferdinand Augustin Hallerstein

for cultural and political relations with China and Korea.”

Asian Studies 3 (2), 13-32.

Saje, Mitja, ed. 2009. A. Hallerstein–Liu Songling: The Multicultural

Legacy of Jesuit Wisdom and Piety at the Qing Dynasty

Court. Maribor; Ljubljana: Association for Culture and

Education Kibla; Arhiv Republike Slovenije.

Shin, Ik-Cheol. 2006. “The Experiences of Visiting Catholic Churches

in Beijing and the Recognition of Western Learning

Reflected in the Journals of Travel to Beijing.” The Review of

Korean Studies 9 (4), 11-31.

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3. The Meeting of Hallerstein and Hong Dae-yong_Gogwansangdae

Vishnevskaya, Elena. 2020. “The Early Modern Jesuit Mission to

China: A Marriage of Faith and Culture.” Asian Philosophies

and Religions 25 (1), 38-42.