Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614 Dejima

Yoo Ji-hyun · Yonsei University

Introduction

The history of Christianity in Japan spans a long period of over 470 years, from the mid-16th century to the early 20th century, specifically from 1549 to the present day in 2022. However, despite this long history of 470 years, the number of Christians in Japan today is less than 1% of the total population, numbering fewer than two million. Despite a history of nearly 500 years, Christianity has not grown significantly and remains a marginalized faith. Behind the indifference of the Japanese public towards Christianity today lies a history of persecution spanning approximately 260 years. Under the Tokugawa regime in the 17th century, Christianity was strictly prohibited throughout Japan from 1614 to 1873, a period of about 260 years, thus losing the opportunity to take root in Japanese soil. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

Christianity, first introduced to Japan in 1549 through a Portuguese mission, was completely banned throughout the country starting in 1614 when Tokugawa Ieyasu, the Shogun of Japan at the time, issued a prohibition decree. Foreign missionaries who were already living and proselytizing in Japan were forcibly expelled, and those who did not comply with the expulsion order and were caught hiding faced severe penalties. All facilities related to Christian organizations, such as churches and Christian schools, were destroyed by the central government, and all Christians in Japan were forced to renounce their faith. Nevertheless, Christians who adhered to their beliefs and disobeyed the Shogun's orders were subjected to harsh punishments without exception. Thus, Ieyasu sought to eradicate Christianity, which had been rapidly spreading throughout Japan since the mid-16th century. Although not detailed in this article, his son, Tokugawa Hidetada, went further by implementing policies to block trade with Western countries. What is the background behind the complete prohibition of Christianity throughout Japan starting in 1614, after its introduction in 1549 and its initial period of smooth sailing and rapid growth? This article will examine the history of Christianity in Japan from 1549 to the issuance of the full prohibition decree in 1614 and explore the background of its persecution.

Existing prior research presents various differing perspectives on the background of Japan's long history of Christian persecution. One perspective attributes the fundamental cause of persecution to the cultural differences between East and West, arguing that Christianity, originating from the West, was inherently incompatible with Japan, an Eastern country, from the outset. While it is true that Japanese culture, based on Shintoism which worships multiple deities, may face difficulties in accepting monotheistic Christianity, there are many points that are difficult to readily agree with in this view. Firstly, today we can easily find examples of Christianity having grown significantly or growing significantly in various East Asian countries, including Korea. Secondly, records left by foreign missionaries who were active in Japan at the time indicate that there was a considerable number of Japanese Christians who earnestly studied and contemplated the word of God. In other words, while the clash of Eastern and Western cultures cannot be entirely dismissed as irrelevant, it is insufficient to explain the history of Christian persecution in Japan, which lasted for nearly three centuries.

Another perspective identifies Japanese nationalism as the fundamental cause of Christian persecution, positing that during the Sengoku period, characterized by constant warfare, the most crucial political issue for Japanese leaders was the unification of Japan, and foreign religions like Christianity were perceived as obstacles to this unification and were thus persecuted. While most agree that the unification of Japan was the most important political issue of the time, opinions are divided regarding the central government's perception of Christian organizations. Some argue that Christian organizations were not seen as obstacles to unification but were rather used as political tools by the central government, which needed to establish its authority for unification, targeting them as convenient foreign forces. Conversely, some argue that rather than intentionally making Christian organizations a common enemy for unification, the rapid growth of Christianity, its proselytizing activities targeting political figures, and the presence of powerful Western nations behind it made it inevitable for the Japanese central government to perceive Christian organizations as a threatening force. Unlike the clash of Eastern and Western cultures, these views, which reflect the realities of Japanese society at the time, can be considered plausible. However, these arguments are also insufficient to accurately depict the background of the events because they overly focus on Japan's internal situation. While the history of Christian persecution in Japan is indeed an event that occurred within Japanese society, a significant portion of it involves foreign countries and people outside of Japan. Therefore, considering only Japan's internal situation can only depict a partial background rather than the overall background of the event. In other words, a relatively accurate depiction of the background of Christian persecution in Japan requires considering both internal and external circumstances.

In the 65 years between the initial introduction of Christianity to Japan in 1549 and its complete prohibition in 1614, global politics underwent a dynamic process. It was a historically rich period marked by the reorganization of the world order and active maritime activities, connecting various countries and facilitating encounters between East and West. As mentioned earlier, the history of Christianity in Japan cannot be fully understood without considering the relationship between Japan and the West. Therefore, even though the persecution occurred within Japan, its background must be examined by considering both internal and external circumstances, not just Japan's internal situation. For this reason, unlike previous studies that focused solely on Japan's internal situation from a narrow perspective, this study aims to illuminate the event from a broader perspective by simultaneously considering both internal and external circumstances. Furthermore, to avoid the error of interpreting this event solely from the perspective of a particular group, this study aims to provide a multifaceted view by considering the differing perspectives of both the victims and perpetrators of the persecution.

Finally, based on an examination of Japan's internal and external circumstances, as well as the perspectives of both victims and perpetrators, this study argues that the primary background for the complete prohibition of Christianity throughout Japan starting in 1614, after its initial introduction in 1549 and period of smooth sailing, was the decline of Portugal and the state control implemented by the Tokugawa regime to consolidate its central authority.

The Encounter Between Japan and Christianity and Its Development

Changes in World Order and the Encounter Between East and West 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima The changes in the world order in the early 16th century hold significant meaning in relation to the encounter between Japan and Christianity. If Portugal had not established itself as a global power and engaged in active maritime exploration for colonial expansion, Portuguese Jesuit missionaries would not have traveled from the distant land of Europe to Japan, then a peripheral country in Asia. Consequently, if the missionaries had not come to Japan, the gospel of Christianity would not have been introduced to Japan in the mid-16th century.

Thus, the history of Christianity in Japan actually begins with the changes in the world order in the early 16th century. In the early 16th century, Portugal rose to the center of the world as a global power, and in accordance with these changes in the world order, the existing world order was reorganized around Portugal in 1515. Subsequently, Portugal engaged in extensive maritime exploration and focused on colonial expansion, and its influence as a global power spread to all corners of the world, both East and West, reaching Africa, the Americas, and Asia (Modelski 1978, 219). The encounter between Japan and Christianity also occurred within this context of East-West encounters. From the early 15th century, Portuguese people engaged in active maritime exploration, and in 1543, a Portuguese merchant ship landed on the island of Tanegashima in southern Japan, leading to the discovery of the island nation of Japan for the first time. Subsequently, full-scale trade began between the two countries, and as trade between them gradually became more active, Japan naturally began to adopt various European civilizations and cultures, with Christianity being introduced to Japan as part of this process.

Christianity Welcomed Under Portuguese Influence

The history of Christianity in Japan officially began on August 15, 1549, when Francis Xavier, a Portuguese missionary of Spanish origin, landed in Kagoshima, Japan, with Anjiro, a Japanese man he met in Malacca, Malaysia, along with Father Torres and Brother Fernandez, with the aim of proselytizing (Cieslik 1954, 1-2).

Considering the current reality of Christianity in Japan today, one might assume that Christianity was unwelcome from the beginning. However, in reality, Christianity was greatly welcomed by the Japanese public as well as political figures, under the influence of Portugal, which had established itself as a global power at the time. Examining the letters sent by Xavier to various Jesuit missions in Portugal, India, and Rome during his proselytizing activities in Japan, as well as various other records published by Jesuit organizations, it is easy to see that Christianity was warmly welcomed by the Japanese people in the mid-16th century. According to Xavier's letters, powerful figures often invited missionaries to their homes to inquire in detail about the gospel and provided generous financial support for the missionaries (Campbell, 1921). 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

Figure 1. Francis Xavier (Source: Kobe City Museum)

The reason why Christianity, despite being a foreign religion, was so warmly welcomed in Japan upon its introduction is deeply related to the significant influence Portugal exerted on Japan's economy, politics, and society at the time through trade. Japanese merchants profited from trade with Portugal, and feudal lords, the daimyo, who were constantly vying for power, could import and utilize advanced Western firearms that were unavailable in Japan (Boxer 1951, 28). Therefore, trade with Portugal was crucial for merchants who relied on economic profits for their livelihood, as well as for daimyo who had to win every battle to protect not only their lives but also their territories and clans.

Furthermore, the reason why trade with Portugal was even more important for Japanese merchants and daimyo was that Japan had no alternative trading partners at the time, nor could it have any. At that time, Portugal, as a global power, not only led trade between Asia and Europe but also monopolized trade among Asian countries. In other words, it was virtually impossible for Japan to import foreign goods without going through Portugal. Thus, Japan, heavily reliant on Portugal for trade, had no choice but to treat Portuguese Jesuit missions with respect from the very beginning.

Therefore, daimyo made considerable efforts to maintain good relations not only with Portuguese merchants but also with Portuguese Jesuit missionaries. They readily granted permission for proselytizing activities of a foreign religion they barely understood, and actively supported these activities. They provided comfortable residences for foreign missionaries and built churches for theological study, and did not hesitate to offer financial assistance when needed. While it cannot be definitively stated that all daimyo welcomed the Jesuit missions solely out of calculation, continuous trade with Portugal was the primary reason for their hospitality. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

In addition to Portugal's significant influence as a global power in Japan, another reason for the daimyo's warm reception of missionaries was the crucial role they played in trade between the two countries. Trade required personnel who could simultaneously speak Portuguese and Japanese, and no one was more suitable for this role than the missionaries. Foreign missionaries, who diligently studied Japanese culture and language for successful proselytizing activities in Japan, were the only personnel capable of acting as interpreters and intermediaries between Portuguese and Japanese merchants. For these reasons, Jesuit missions, under the welcome and protection of the daimyo, were able to spread the gospel without significant restrictions and continue their proselytizing activities for an extended period amidst ongoing warfare.

Feudal Japanese Society and the Rapid Spread of Christianity

At that time, Japanese society was feudal, with a social structure where if a feudal lord, the daimyo, converted, his family, retainers, and at least 300 others would convert along with him. In fact, the reason Xavier chose Japan as a new mission field is deeply related to this feudal social structure. Having heard about Japan's feudal social system during his missionary activities in other lands, Xavier believed that if he could convert the Emperor of Japan, the feudal lords and intellectuals under him could also be made Christian. He harbored the hope of making Japan, an island nation in Asia, another Christian country and thus ventured to Japan. Upon arriving in Japan, he traveled to various cities, proselytizing with the permission of the feudal lords, the daimyo, while simultaneously seeking to visit Miyako (Kyoto), the imperial capital, to preach the gospel to the Emperor. Xavier eventually had the opportunity to meet the Emperor of Japan and speak about the gospel, but his joy was short-lived as he realized that the Emperor in Japan was merely a symbolic figure, leaving him in great despair. However, he soon revised his plan, identifying the feudal lords, the daimyo, who held real power and influence in Japan, as the primary targets for missionary activities and continued his proselytizing efforts in Japan. As he departed Japan after about two years of missionary work, he reportedly advised future missionaries that maintaining good relationships with the daimyo was the most crucial factor for successful missionary activities in Japan (Cieslik, 1594). 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

Figure 2. Missionary activities (Source: Japanese History and Culture)

Thereafter, Jesuit missions focused their efforts on converting the daimyo. As mentioned earlier, Portugal had a significant influence on Japan concerning trade at the time, and furthermore, Portuguese Jesuit missionaries played an important role in trade. Therefore, it was not difficult for missionaries to obtain freedom for proselytizing activities from the daimyo. Consequently, despite being a foreign religion from the West, Christianity, with the influence of Portugal and the power of Japan's feudal social system, was able to grow rapidly in Japanese society in a relatively short period. The number of Christians in Japan reached 150,000 in 1582 and 220,000 in 1609, indicating the rapid growth of Christianity (Elison, 1988). Jesuit Missions' Adaptation to Japanese Culture

As mentioned earlier, some existing studies propose the clash of Eastern and Western cultures as the fundamental reason why Christianity could not grow in Japan. However, examining the history of Christianity in Japan in the late 16th century reveals that rather than simply clashing, Japanese culture and Christianity made efforts to accommodate each other, seeking common ground rather than emphasizing their own familiar cultures. For example, when Jesuit missionaries arrived in Japan in the early 16th century and began their proselytizing activities, they did not implement a system of donations. While it was common to make plans regarding donations when traveling to a new location for missionary work, Xavier did not make or collect any plans related to donations for his proselytizing activities in Japan. However, among the Japanese populace at the time, the prevailing sentiment was that religious organizations should raise funds to help the less fortunate in the local community. The Jesuit missions, taking into account the opinions of these Japanese Christians, collected donations and used them to aid the needy in the community. This example shows that the Jesuit missions adopted a flexible approach in their proselytizing activities, accommodating Japanese culture rather than unilaterally imposing their own methods on the Japanese people. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

Furthermore, Christian missionaries showed great enthusiasm for learning Japanese culture and history. Alexander Valignano, an Italian Jesuit missionary who arrived in Japan in 1579, emphasized that for Christianity to take root properly in Japan, it was essential to understand the customs and ways of thinking of the Japanese people. He believed that missionaries must understand Japanese culture and history and learn the Japanese language for effective evangelization and smooth communication with the Japanese populace. Recognizing the urgent need for books for education, Valignano brought a printing press from Lisbon to Japan via Macau in 1590. Subsequently, various collections of sermons and books for language education began to be published in Japan. The printing press proved more useful than initially expected, and in addition to books for Western missionaries to learn Japanese, language education books for Japanese people to learn Latin and Portuguese were also published (Midzunoe 2005, 2). Christian missionary organizations studied Japan and sought to understand and accept Japanese culture before imposing Western culture, which led to the Japanese people studying Western academics and languages.

Although Christianity seemed to have a smooth path in Japan under Portuguese protection, there were still obstacles to overcome. Among these, Buddhist organizations, which were originally the dominant religion in Japan, posed the greatest challenge to Christian organizations. As Christianity began to spread throughout Japan, the influence of Buddhist organizations started to wane. Those who embraced the Christian gospel criticized Buddhist doctrines as false, causing cracks in the long-standing prestige of Buddhism. Moreover, due to the feudal social system, a large number of Buddhist followers converted to Christianity simultaneously, leading to a sharp decline in the amount of alms collected by temples in some cities. Consequently, the lives of monks who relied on temples for their livelihood became increasingly difficult, and they inevitably developed resentment towards the foreign religion from the West, which undermined their prestige and threatened their livelihoods.

Direct conflicts between Christian and Buddhist organizations are also evident in the materials restored and published by the Jesuit missions from Xavier's letters. According to the records, during Xavier's proselytizing activities in Kagoshima, Buddhist monks spread rumors to incite animosity towards the missionary group and, furthermore, continuously urged the daimyo to issue decrees prohibiting further Christian expansion. As a result, a decree restricting Christian proselytizing activities was soon issued in Kagoshima, and since further proselytizing activities became impossible, Xavier entrusted Kagoshima to Anjiro and departed for Hirado with Father Torres, Brother Fernandez, and some Japanese companions. When Xavier first met the daimyo in September 1549, the daimyo had clearly stopped Xavier, who was in a hurry to leave for Miyako, and advised him to depart when the winds were favorable and safe navigation was possible six months later. However, after the decree was issued, he allowed Xavier to depart and arranged a ship for him to travel to Hirado (Cieslik 1954, 3). While daimyo generally did not dare to mistreat Jesuit missionaries and welcomed them to ensure smooth trade with Portugal, some daimyo were persuaded by Buddhist organizations to restrict Christian proselytizing activities. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

In his letters to Europe throughout his missionary work in Japan for over two and a half years, Xavier described Buddhist organizations as the greatest enemy of Christian organizations (Coleridge, 1872) and warned missionaries who would come to Japan in the future to be cautious of Buddhism. The two religions, unable to coexist due to ideological differences, viewed each other as their greatest adversaries.

The History of Christian Persecution in Japan

Christian proselytizing activities proceeded smoothly under the strong support of Oda Nobunaga until his death. Jesuit missions built churches and schools to spread the gospel and even organized Japanese delegations to visit Europe together, creating a meeting place to solidify the relationship between European Jesuits and Japan. However, after Nobunaga's death, when Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded him, Christianity began to face significant difficulties. Hideyoshi, who rose to become the most powerful figure in Japan after Nobunaga, did not initially harbor animosity towards Christian forces. Trade with Portugal remained important during Hideyoshi's reign, so to maintain continuous trade with Portugal and receive necessary assistance from missionaries for trade, daimyo, including Hideyoshi, made efforts to maintain good relations with Portuguese missionaries. However, Christianity, which seemed destined to continue its smooth path, began to face difficulties when Hideyoshi issued edicts restricting the spread of Christian forces and an expulsion order for priests in 1587.

On July 23, 1587, the day before issuing the expulsion order for priests, Hideyoshi first promulgated an anti-Christian notice. This notice, consisting of 11 articles, fundamentally conveyed the message that the central government would control issues related to Christian conversion henceforth, and that Christians were a harmful group to Japanese society. Specifically, it prohibited feudal lords from forcing their retainers to convert to Christianity, and while granting commoners like tenant farmers the freedom to convert, it stipulated that feudal lords must obtain permission from the central government before converting. Simultaneously, it mentioned Ikko, a sect of Buddhism that had previously caused disturbances in Japanese society, and strongly asserted that Christians were a more wicked group than them. Following this anti-Christian notice, the subsequent expulsion order for priests began by emphasizing that Japan is a divine land, and ordered Christian forces, who defiled the divine land by damaging shrines and Buddhism, to leave the divine land of Japan within 20 days (Elison 1988, 115-118). 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

Although these two edicts were not effectively implemented, Christian organizations faced significant difficulties after their promulgation, unlike anything they had experienced before. Hideyoshi confiscated the land of Nagasaki, which Omura Sumitada had granted to the Jesuits, making it his own property, and also destroyed churches and convents in Kinki. However, trade with Iberian Peninsula merchants remained important, leading to frequent suspensions of the edicts' enforcement and reliance on the assistance of Christian missionaries. Thus, although the enforcement of the anti-Christian edicts seemed to be suspended, the San Felipe incident in 1596 led to the brutal execution of 26 Christians in Nagasaki, then known as a Christian city (Hur 2007, 34).

When the Spanish ship called San Felipe ran aground in Tosa (present-day Kochi Prefecture) in 1596, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the ruler at the time, learned that Christian missionaries were entering Japan and proselytizing without the permission of the central government. Enraged,

Figure 3. Nagasaki Martyrs (Source: Saint Benedict Center) Hideyoshi decided to make an example of those who disobeyed his orders by arresting 24 Christians in Kyoto and publicly executing them in Nagasaki, the city of Christians. Thus, the 24 Christians walked approximately 1000 km from Kyoto to Nagasaki over a month. Along the way, two more Christians voluntarily joined the martyrdom, bringing the total to 26. On February 5, 1597, these 26 Christians were publicly executed in front of a large crowd. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

Through the Nagasaki martyrdom, Hideyoshi intended to instill fear and dread among Christians throughout Japan, thereby suppressing the spread of Christian forces. However, contrary to his intentions, the Nagasaki martyrdom and subsequent martyrdoms only strengthened the faith of the remaining Christians. Shortly thereafter, the central government changed its policy, opting to torture Christians in extremely cruel and extreme ways to induce them to abandon their faith, rather than executing them (Website of Churches, 2014). Although the anti-Christian edicts issued under the Hideyoshi regime were ultimately not effectively implemented, they served as the central government's first warning signal regarding Christianity. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

Tokugawa Ieyasu

If the Hideyoshi regime sounded a warning bell for the difficulties faced by Christianity, the Tokugawa regime marked the period when the history of these difficulties truly began and unfolded. Tokugawa Ieyasu, who became the supreme ruler of Japan after Hideyoshi, was neither anti-Christian nor pro-Buddhist, nor did he initially persecute Christians. Like Nobunaga and Hideyoshi before him, he welcomed Portuguese missionaries for the sake of continuous trade. He permitted Jesuit missions to proselytize in various Japanese cities such as Kyoto, Osaka, and Nagasaki, and even provided financial assistance to missionaries facing financial difficulties. However, this was short-lived. With the emergence of new trading partners such as the Netherlands and England in the early 1600s, Ieyasu's lenient attitude towards Christian organizations changed 180 degrees. Having acquired new trading partners that could replace Portugal, Ieyasu no longer felt the need to welcome Christian missionaries, believing that Japan could import foreign goods without Portuguese trade. In other words, an environment was created where the central government could freely manipulate Christian organizations (Hur 2007, 37).

Under the Tokugawa regime, the harsh persecution of Christian organizations began in earnest with the issuance of two anti-Christian edicts. First, in 1612, a relatively brief warning was issued against Christian organizations, conveying the message that Christianity was prohibited and that those who violated the law would face corresponding punishment (Morries 2018, 300). Then, two years later, in 1614, a lengthy document called the Hai Kirishitan bun was issued, which strongly criticized Christian organizations, unlike the previous warning. It contained a strong rejection of Christian organizations, stating that believers who violated the prohibition order would face severe penalties without exception (Morries 2018, 301-306). Numerous other anti-Christian edicts were issued thereafter, and when Ieyasu's son, Hidetada, took power, edicts prohibiting trade with Western countries were also issued.

The film Silence, directed by Martin Scorsese and released in 2016, depicts the story of Portuguese foreign missionaries who suffered under the Tokugawa regime in the 17th century. Although Silence is based on a novel by Japanese author Shusaku Endo, much of the film's content is considered to accurately portray actual events, even by the Jesuit missions (Jesuits, 2021). In 1614, a large-scale expulsion order for foreign missionaries and a ban on Christianity throughout Japan were issued, and this was carried out more thoroughly than ever before in Japanese history. The central government searched villages for Christians. Villagers had to step on stone or wooden tablets depicting the Virgin Mary or Christ to prove they were not Christians.

Figure 4. Anti-Christian Edict (Source: Jesuits)

Although this may seem like a simple act, it was equivalent to abandoning one's faith. Some refused the order and were executed or subjected to severe torture. Foreign missionaries, despite the expulsion order throughout Japan, continued their missionary activities by hiding from the authorities and holding underground gatherings. However, financial rewards were offered to those who found foreign missionaries, and severe penalties were imposed on those who harbored them, making hiding extremely difficult. If discovered while in hiding, they were subjected to a cruel punishment of being hung upside down with their heads buried in a pit, bleeding drop by drop from a sword cut on their forehead until they died (Silence, 2016). 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

Figure 5. Wooden tablet with the image of the Virgin Mary (Source: Jesuits) Later, the Tokugawa regime required proof of non-Christian status through certificates issued by Buddhist temples (Hur 2007, 14). Surviving Christians lived in hiding, disguised as Buddhists, preserving their faith underground. These hidden Christians were called Kakure Kirishitan (hidden Christians) and emerged from hiding in the 19th century when Japan ended its policy of isolation. Indeed, the 17th century under the Tokugawa regime was an era of Christian massacre. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

The number of foreign missionaries, which had gradually increased since 1549, began to decline sharply after 1614. From 1586 onwards, the number of active foreign Christian missionaries in Japan exceeded 100 annually until 1614. However, following the 1614 edict and the subsequent harsh persecution of Christians, the number of missionaries, recorded as 118 in 1614, drastically decreased to 58 in the following year, 1615 (Schütte 1968, 379-380). The sharp decline in the number of missionaries to less than half of the previous year after the edict clearly demonstrates the severity of the Christian persecution policies implemented by the Tokugawa regime.

The number of foreign missionaries, which had gradually increased since 1549, began to sharply decline starting in 1614. From 1586 onwards, the number of Christian foreign missionaries active in Japan exceeded 100 annually until 1614. However, following the 1614 edict and the subsequent severe persecution of Christians, the number of missionaries, recorded as 118 in 1614, drastically decreased to 58 in the following year, 1615 (Schütte 1968, 379-380). The reality of that era, where the number of missionaries was reduced to less than half of the previous year after the edict, clearly demonstrates the severity of the Tokugawa regime's anti-Christian policies.

Figure 6. Torture inflicted upon Christians (Source: Jesuits)

Internal and External Backgrounds of the History of Christian Persecution

The reason why Christianity, a foreign religion, was able to grow rapidly and smoothly in Japan, where Shinto and Buddhist ideologies were deeply rooted, was primarily due to the significant influence Portugal exerted on Japan in relation to trade at the time. When Buddhism was first introduced, Japanese society, which was in turmoil due to the emergence of a new religion, did not show strong animosity towards foreign religious groups from the distant West. Instead, they welcomed them from the beginning and even permitted the proselytizing activities of unfamiliar religions, all for the sake of trade with Portugal. However, as Portugal gradually weakened and new trading partners such as the Netherlands and England emerged to replace Portugal, Japan's attitude towards Christian organizations changed drastically. Due to another shift in the world order, Japan no longer needed to rely heavily on Portugal for trade matters, and consequently, there was no longer a reason to specially welcome Christian organizations. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

If the changed external circumstances, namely the decline of Portugal and the rise of the Netherlands and England, granted the Japanese political establishment the freedom to control and suppress Christian organizations as they pleased, unlike before, the internal background of Japan's Christian persecution history is far more complex. A combination of factors and situations, including antipathy towards Christian ideology, the political threat perceived from Christian-related political forces, and the establishment and strengthening of central authority, ultimately led to the harsh persecution of Christian organizations.

First, let us discuss the antipathy towards Christian organizations that existed within Japanese society. The history of Christianity in Japan can be broadly divided into two periods. The first period is the era of growth, referring to the time from the initial introduction of Christianity to Japan in 1549 until the eve of the nationwide implementation of anti-Christian edicts in early 1614. The second period is the era of persecution and concealment, referring to the time from 1614, when the anti-Christian edicts were fully implemented under the Tokugawa regime, until 1873, when Christian persecution ended (Morries 2018, 92). Given that the history of Christianity in Japan is divided into periods of growth and periods of persecution and concealment, it is difficult to assume that antipathy towards Christianity existed within Japanese society during the period of significant growth. On the surface, since Christian organizations were initially welcomed and later persecuted, it is easy to mistakenly believe that antipathy towards Christianity arose later, rather than existing from the beginning. However, in reality, like any foreign religion, Christianity was not exempt from being met with suspicion and antipathy rather than favor upon its initial introduction. While it is true that Christian missionary organizations were initially welcomed by the Japanese public and political figures, allowing them to proselytize relatively freely, this was primarily for the sake of smooth trade with Portugal, making it difficult to consider it genuine welcome stemming from the heart. Ultimately, it was a temporary concealment of true feelings for the sake of benefits gained through trade, and it cannot be concluded that they harbored only good intentions towards Christian organizations without any antipathy. The rapid shift in the Tokugawa regime's attitude when new trading partners like the Netherlands and England emerged in the 1600s, replacing Portugal, also suggests that the antipathy that existed but was not openly expressed surfaced when circumstances changed. 2. Background of the History of Christian Persecution in Japan: 1549-1614_Dejima

The antipathy of the Japanese central government toward Christian organizations can be seen as a complex interplay of various reasons. The first reason is deeply related to Christianity's monotheistic ideology, which conflicted with the existing Shinto and Buddhist ideologies in Japan. When Christian beliefs were first introduced to Japan, the Jesuit missionary group experienced significant conflict with Buddhist organizations due to ideological differences. Christian faith, by its nature as a monotheistic religion, prohibits the worship of other gods and emphasizes the worship of God alone as the absolute being. In contrast, Shinto and Buddhist ideologies, deeply rooted in Japanese society, involve the worship of over eight million deities and are based on the concept of reincarnation, where humans can be reborn as gods. Consequently, Christian faith and these ideologies were fundamentally incompatible, like oil and water. As Christian faith spread throughout Japan from the mid-16th century, Buddhist organizations lost followers as the number of Christian adherents grew. This led Buddhist monks to harbor resentment and animosity towards Christian organizations, viewing the emergence of a foreign religion as a threat to their religious and social standing in Japan. Had the conflict between Christian and Buddhist organizations remained solely a dispute between two different religions, the history of Christian persecution in Japan might have unfolded differently. However, the conflict extended into the political sphere, ultimately fueling the Japanese political establishment's antipathy towards Christian organizations.

The Japanese political establishment had maintained close ties with Buddhist organizations long before the introduction of Christianity to Japan. During that era, it was common for people to believe that offering donations to temples could absolve them of sins, and thus, associating with Buddhist monks and making offerings was viewed favorably. Daimyo, in particular, were the social class that made the most substantial donations, fostering even closer relationships with Buddhist monks (Cieslik, 1954). Given these close relationships, when Buddhist monks spoke negatively about Christian organizations, daimyo naturally tended to believe them and develop antipathy towards Christians. Letters left by missionaries also record instances where certain daimyo, influenced by Buddhist monks, restricted the proselytizing activities of Christian missionaries. This friction with Buddhism led Christian organizations to incur the dislike and antipathy of the Japanese political establishment.

Another reason why the conflict between Christianity and Shinto/Buddhism extended to the political sphere is closely related to the political utility of Shinto and Buddhist ideologies in the 1500s. Since ancient times, Shinto and Buddhist ideologies had been consistently used as political tools by the Japanese central government to legitimize the power of the ruling class and to solidify the relationship between the ruling and ruled classes based on loyalty sworn before the gods. In essence, the central government utilized Shinto and Buddhism to strengthen the authority of the ruling class and preempt potential insurrections (Kudora, 1996). The fact that Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu in the 1500s explicitly referred to Japan as the "land of the gods" in their anti-Christian edicts, thereby endorsing Shinto and Buddhism, can be seen as a continuation of these ancient political practices. Especially in a period of social instability where religion could be effectively employed as a political tool to establish central authority, Christian organizations, which clashed with Shinto and Buddhist ideologies and highlighted their perceived flaws to the public, were bound to incur the antipathy of the central government.

While the central government viewed Christianity and Christian organizations negatively, it also found them highly useful in consolidating its power by creating a common enemy for all of Japan. For instance, in his 1587 anti-Christian edict, Toyotomi Hideyoshi compared Christian organizations to the Ikko sect, a Buddhist sect that had previously caused social unrest, portraying Christians as more wicked than the Ikko followers. In his expulsion order for priests issued the following day, he depicted Christian organizations as a malevolent force that destroyed Japan's ancient traditions and disrupted social order (Elison 1988, 115-118). Tokugawa Ieyasu pursued policies very similar to Hideyoshi's regarding Christian organizations. The anti-Christian decree issued under Ieyasu's regime in 1614 criticized Christian missionaries as a malevolent force that spread harmful doctrines in Japan, declared true religions false, and coveted the nation's public authority (Morris 2018, 301-306). In other words, both Hideyoshi and Ieyasu skillfully used Christian organizations as enemies of Japan and a source of evil in Japanese society to strengthen their own power. They portrayed themselves as protectors of the divine land against evil, thereby legitimizing their rule. Simultaneously, by deliberately and harshly punishing Christians in public, they sought to display their authority and solidify the position of the central government.

Another background factor contributing to the persecution of Christians in Japan was the central government's perception of Christian organizations as a political threat. While there are differing opinions and a lack of conclusive evidence regarding whether missionary organizations actually harbored political objectives, it is a matter that cannot be judged hastily. However, regardless of the presence of political motives, the actions of Christian organizations during this period were sufficiently open to misinterpretation by the central government. Firstly, missionary organizations not only expanded their missionary activities over wider areas but also acquired land in their own names. In 1580, Omura Sumitada transferred Nagasaki to the Jesuit organization, marking the establishment of the first Christian city in Japan. Secondly, despite being religious organizations, they exhibited military preparedness. They fortified their premises with high walls and stockpiled weapons. Thirdly, missionaries primarily targeted political figures for proselytization, dedicating particular effort to converting them (Morris 2018, 107). The sight of religious organizations building high walls and preparing weapons, akin to those preparing for war, was far from the public's expectation of a religious entity. Those who observed these military aspects of missionary organizations could certainly have concluded that they had objectives beyond mere evangelism. However, considering the context of Japan's perpetual warfare during that era, interpreting these actions as part of missionary activities, rather than a pursuit of political goals, would not be unreasonable.

The Sengoku period, spanning the reigns of Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu, was an era of civil war and rebellion, characterized by a lack of established central authority. Following the Onin War, which lasted approximately ten years from 1467 to 1477, the central government collapsed, and over 120 daimyo constantly fought for greater power and territory, each ruling over a portion of the nation (Morris 2018, 101). Consequently, Japanese society during this period was filled with violence, with very few days of peace. Missionaries frequently faced situations where they had to abandon their missionary work due to frequent civil wars and relocate to other cities to escape the conflict. In such a chaotic and violent era, the Jesuit organization could not simply rely on the aid of daimyo without any preparations. Furthermore, they could have received assistance from their home orders to prepare for war if they had chosen to do so. Therefore, it appears that missionary organizations prepared for war to the extent they were capable. In fact, the land acquired under the missionary organization's name was obtained through transfer, not force. Their direct preparations for war during the period of incessant civil strife can be seen as an effort to ensure stable missionary activities independently, rather than solely relying on the protection of daimyo. Moreover, the missionary strategy of targeting political figures began with the early missionary Xavier. In the feudal society of that era, where constant warfare prevailed, the assistance of daimyo was essential for missionaries to conduct their proselytizing activities safely and legally. Additionally, due to the nature of feudal society, converting one daimyo often led to the conversion of over 300 people under their rule. Therefore, the missionary organization's focus on daimyo as primary targets for proselytization was a natural missionary strategy reflecting the contemporary social realities of the mission field.

Another background factor that led to Christian organizations being perceived as a political threat involved political scandals instigated by daimyo who had converted to Christianity during the Tokugawa regime. This incident, which can be considered the catalyst for the nationwide ban on Christianity in 1614, originated from an armed conflict in Macao in 1608. An armed clash occurred between the sailors of the Christian daimyo Arima Harunobu and Portuguese merchants in Macao, resulting in the deaths of 60 Japanese individuals. The following year, in 1609, the Portuguese governor of Macao, Andre Pessoa, who was involved in the Macao incident, anchored in Nagasaki with his sailors. Harunobu, remembering the Macao incident, launched a retaliatory attack. Harunobu emerged victorious, and Pessoa and his sailors were massacred. Okamoto Daihachi, another Christian daimyo who fought alongside Harunobu, realized that Harunobu expected a reward from Ieyasu after his victory. Daihachi then told Harunobu that he would persuade Honda Masazumi, a close associate of Ieyasu and Daihachi's superior, to help Arima regain the lands previously lost by the Arima family. Not long after, Daihachi conveyed false news to Harunobu, stating that Ieyasu would soon grant him the lands. Delighted, Harunobu offered Daihachi a generous bribe. In 1612, Harunobu, weary of waiting, directly approached Masazumi to discuss the land issue, thus exposing Daihachi's deception. Enraged by the scandals involving the two Christian daimyo, Ieyasu initiated an investigation. The investigation revealed that Christian beliefs were widespread among daimyo, that many of his own subordinates were Christians, and that there existed a network formed by their faith. Particularly at a time when Toyotomi Hideyori still maintained influence in Osaka Castle, posing a threat to the Tokugawa regime's consolidation of power, there was a strong pro-Christian sentiment among the daimyo who supported Hideyori. This incident further intensified Ieyasu's antipathy towards Christianity (Hur 2007, 35-40).

In conclusion, the oppressive rule aimed at consolidating central power under the Tokugawa regime can be seen as the core domestic background for the persecution of Christian organizations. During a period when the Tokugawa family, following the examples of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, chose to establish central authority through intimidation and coercive control, various social elements, including daimyo, religious groups, and tenant farmers, caused societal unrest. Within this historical context, Western Christian missionary organizations and Japanese Christians became targets of suppression by the controlling and coercive Tokugawa regime due to the complex interplay of the aforementioned factors and circumstances.

Conclusion

The history of Christian persecution in Japan can be described as a narrative shaped by the confluence of internal and external changes. Externally, the rise and fall of Portugal played a role, while internally, amidst a complex web of intertwined backgrounds, the coercive rule of the Tokugawa regime, which sought to establish central authority and rigorously control the entire nation, stands out as the most crucial background factor in the history of Christian persecution in Japan.

This history may superficially appear as a prolonged struggle between those seeking to maintain power and those striving to uphold their faith and beliefs. However, from a more complex perspective, it demonstrates that history cannot be judged solely by what is apparent; rather, it is the result of a complex interplay of various observable and unobservable factors and circumstances, both internal and external.

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