4. What Did They Think as They Saw the Burning Yuanmingyuan? – The Qing View of Zuo Weng Yun Chi-ho

The Summer Palace · Lee Jeong-seung · Seoul National University

Introduction: Empress Dowager Cixi and the Summer Palace, the Tumultuous 19th Century

For thousands of years, since the Western Zhou Dynasty in the 11th century BCE, China maintained a traditional world order centered on Chinese civilization through various transformations such as the tributary system, appeasement, punitive expeditions, and reconciliation.

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However, during the 19th century when Empress Dowager Cixi held power, China faced the collapse of its feudal order and the emergence of a modern international order due to continuous pressure from foreign powers, beginning with the Opium War in 1840. To modernize China, officials of Han origin, led by Li Hongzhang, adopted the principle of "Chinese essence, Western application" (Zhongti Xiyong), which advocated for partially adopting Western civilization and technology for national strength and prosperity while centering on traditional Confucianism. In practice, the Qing Dynasty actively incorporated Western technology, purchasing fleets from European countries like Britain and Germany and establishing the Beiyang Fleet in 1888. Although the Self-Strengthening Movement ended in failure with the defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, it holds significance in that it marked the first introduction of Western civilization, previously considered barbaric, into China, thus signifying a departure from the traditional world order. Conversely, Empress Dowager Cixi was heavily criticized for diverting naval funds to rebuild the Summer Palace in the summer of 1888, which was cited as one of the reasons for the defeat in the Sino-Japanese War. The Summer Palace is therefore not merely a representative World Heritage site in present-day China, but a crucial historical site that illustrates the period when China's traditional world order clashed with the modern order.

19th Century Korean Views on Qing China: The Doctrine of Uijeong Cheoksa and the Policy of Serving the Great

How, then, was Qing China viewed in Joseon at that time? Having maintained a relationship of serving the great and engaging in friendly intercourse with China for thousands of years within the Chinese world order through the tributary system, Korea was dominated by the prevailing international political theories of Sinocentrism and the doctrine of Uijeong Cheoksa (rejecting heterodoxy).

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In the late 19th century, Joseon, like Qing China, faced invasions from Western capitalist powers demanding trade through military force. When the French Far East Fleet, following the 1866 French Campaign, led approximately 1,500 troops on seven warships in August 1866 and demanded the punishment of those responsible for the massacre and the signing of a Franco-Joseon treaty, Yi Hang-ro (李恒老, 1792–1868), a prominent proponent of Uijeong Cheoksa, submitted a memorial advocating for resistance against foreign aggression rather than appeasement.

⋅

5. Zuo Weng Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China – The Summer Palace

Now, national opinion is divided between "attack" and "negotiate." The argument that we must attack the Western barbarians is our position, while the argument that we should negotiate with them is the enemy's position. If we choose the former, our nation can preserve its ancient customs;

but if we choose the latter, humanity will fall into the realm of beasts.

Yi Hang-ro warned that Western civilization was not human civilization but the civilization of beasts, and that appeasing the French invaders would plunge humanity into the realm of beasts, reducing people to a state no different from animals. He argued that to preserve Joseon's civilization, it must be resolutely rejected, thereby maintaining the nation's people and institutions as they were. Thus, Yi Hang-ro's memorial, submitted to resolve the issue of the French invasions, reflects the Uijeong Cheoksa ideology based on the consciousness of distinguishing between civilization and barbarism, orthodoxy and heresy, and regards Western civilization as evil. Later, in interactions with Japan, Choe Ik-hyeon (崔益鉉) prostrated himself before the palace on January 23, 1876 (lunar calendar), holding an axe, and submitted a memorial opposing the opening of ports to Japan and advocating for continued subservience to Qing China.

of clothing and customs (衣裳之舊); but if we choose the latter, humanity will fall into the realm of beasts (禽獸之域).

domain.

Yi Hang-ro warned that Western civilization was not human civilization but the civilization of beasts, and that appeasing the French invaders would plunge humanity into the realm of beasts, reducing people to a state no different from animals. He argued that to preserve Joseon's civilization, it must be resolutely rejected, thereby maintaining the nation's people and institutions as they were. Thus, Yi Hang-ro's memorial, submitted to resolve the issue of the French invasions, reflects the Uijeong Cheoksa ideology based on the consciousness of distinguishing between civilization and barbarism, orthodoxy and heresy, and regards Western civilization as evil. Later, in interactions with Japan, Choe Ik-hyeon (崔益鉉) prostrated himself before the palace on January 23, 1876 (lunar calendar), holding an axe, and submitted a memorial opposing the opening of ports to Japan and advocating for continued subservience to Qing China.

The Qing's intention was to become the Emperor of China and rule the world (四海). Therefore, we could borrow from the Chinese hegemon what approximated benevolence and righteousness, as they were merely "barbarians" (夷狄). Barbarians are human. Thus, without immediately questioning the principles, if a small state can serve a great state [以小事大], we have maintained friendly relations until now, and even if there were shortcomings in their intentions, they possessed a magnanimous spirit of tolerance, so we were not subjected to the calamity of invasion. However, with these barbarians, they only know greed and have no trace of human reason. They are merely beasts. To guarantee that humans and beasts can live in harmony and associate together without concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

rule.

only barbarians. Barbarians are human. Therefore, without immediately questioning the principles, if a small state can serve a great state [以小事大], we have maintained friendly relations until now, and even if there were shortcomings in their intentions, they possessed a magnanimous spirit of tolerance, so we were not subjected to the calamity of invasion. However, with these barbarians, they only know greed and have no trace of human reason. They are merely beasts. To guarantee that humans and beasts can live in harmony and associate together without concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

serve

if a small state can serve a great state [以小事大], we have maintained friendly relations until now, and even if there were shortcomings in their intentions, they possessed a magnanimous spirit of tolerance, so we were not subjected to the calamity of invasion. However, with these barbarians, they only know greed and have no trace of human reason. They are merely beasts. To guarantee that humans and beasts can live in harmony and associate together without concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

even if there were shortcomings in their intentions, they possessed a magnanimous spirit of tolerance, so we were not subjected to the calamity of invasion. However, with these barbarians, they only know greed and have no trace of human reason. They are merely beasts. To guarantee that humans and beasts can live in harmony and associate together without concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

invasion. However, with these barbarians, they only know greed and have no trace of human reason. They are merely beasts. To guarantee that humans and beasts can live in harmony and associate together without concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

only know greed and have no trace of human reason. They are merely beasts. To guarantee that humans and beasts can live in harmony and associate together without concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

They are merely beasts. To guarantee that humans and beasts can live in harmony and associate together without concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

To guarantee that humans and beasts can live in harmony and associate together without concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

concern, I, your servant, do not understand what that means. This is the fifth reason why harmony leads to chaos and ruin.

ruin.

In this memorial, Choe Ik-hyeon argued from the perspective of "unifying the barbarians and the West" that appeasing the enemy would disrupt the Chinese civilization, collapse the Three Bonds, and lead to the ruin of all things. In 1879, the former Prime Minister of Joseon, Yi Yu-won (李裕元), directly sent a letter to Li Hongzhang, the Governor-General of Beiyang, stating that even if Joseon, as a small state of China, signed treaties with Western countries, Western international law would have no effect on small states, and Joseon would gain no practical benefit.

Your Excellency, your sincere desire to follow auspiciousness and avoid misfortune

is so earnest and devoted that even a father and brother could not surpass it in their affection for a son or younger sibling.

5. Zuo Weng Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China – The Summer Palace

However, as circumstances do not permit, there is no way to follow your will.

Therefore, I, in my great foolishness, believe it is quite possible that I will not realize this even in my lifetime.

However, what I rely on and trust is that the West and Japan, already under Your Excellency's imposing authority, dare not act recklessly.

Therefore, my small country will forever rely on your great virtue and pray day and night to receive your guidance whenever important matters arise.

small country

pray

and celebrate.

Thus, the conservative ruling class at the time strongly advocated for rejecting the West and Japan while serving Qing China. In contrast, what were the views on Qing China held by the then-minority enlightenment faction, and further, by Zuo Weng (佐翁) Yun Chi-ho, a young enlightenment figure of the late 19th century? Yun Chi-ho was a representative modern intellectual of the enlightenment period, having studied modern scholarship in Japan, China, and the United States in the 1880s and early 1890s. Yun Chi-ho left behind a vast body of work, including the Yun Chi-ho Diary, written in Korean, Chinese, and English over approximately 60 years from the late Joseon period in the 1880s to the Japanese colonial period in the 1940s, as well as numerous personal letters, documenting his thoughts at the time. Through this travelogue, we will closely examine the figure of Zuo Weng Yun Chi-ho, moving beyond a simplistic dichotomy of "rejecting heterodoxy" and "enlightenment," to explore how Yun Chi-ho viewed Qing China in the turbulent late 19th century. Furthermore, we will examine the historical context and perceptions he held, transcending the time and space learned in the Sarangbang class, explore why such perspectives were formed, and ultimately, what dreams he harbored for Joseon's reform and what frustrations he encountered.

Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China – Adolescence (1865–1885)

In 1881, at the age of 17, Zuo Weng Yun Chi-ho accompanied Eo Yun-jung on a trip to Japan, where he and Yu Gil-jun became the first Joseon students to study in Japan. He then enrolled in Dojinsya (同人社), a school in Tokyo founded by Nakamura Masanao (中村正直), Japan's foremost enlightenment thinker. Gifted in languages, Yun Chi-ho began learning English in 1882 from Leon. V. Polder, the Dutch Consul in Yokohama, and embraced enlightenment ideas. After only 24 days of studying English, Yun Chi-ho was asked by Lucius H. Foote, the first U.S. Minister to Joseon, to accompany him back to Joseon. Upon his return, he was appointed as a clerk in the Tongri Gyoeseop Tongshang Samuamun (Office for Foreign Affairs and Trade), responsible for interpreting between King Gojong and Minister Foote. At this time, he was only 18 years old. Yun Chi-ho openly expressed his resentment towards the pro-Qing faction in Joseon and, with great ambition, requested that Minister Foote become a source of enlightenment for Joseon.

I hope that the Minister will be the best advisor for the enlightenment faction. This

is my greatest wish. . . The pro-Qing faction will be reluctant, and I, as a translator, will be disliked. If that happens,

we will become useless. This is my passionate plea, and these words are for my country and for you, Minister.

5. Zuo Weng Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China – The Summer Palace Yun Chi-ho believed that Joseon's poverty and backwardness were due to its history of being dragged along by Qing China. In his diary entry of February 1884, he recorded the relationship between Joseon and Qing China as follows:

plea, and these words are for my country and for you, Minister.” 5. Zuo Weng Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China – The Summer Palace Yun Chi-ho believed that Joseon's poverty and backwardness were due to its history of being dragged along by Qing China. In his diary entry of February 1884, he recorded the relationship between Joseon and Qing China as follows:

The relationship between our country and Qing China today is something that no one, whether from the five continents or a mere child, is unaware of.

However, when comparing the present with the past, the situation has changed significantly.

In the past, being a subordinate state and being content under its rule was not only dictated by the situation but also served as a means of national defense.

but also served as a means of national defense. However, now, serving the suzerain state with particular devotion and adhering to the old regulations is not only useless in practice but will inevitably lead to the ruin of the nation.

suzerain

state

will inevitably lead to the ruin of the nation.

Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China – During His Exile in Shanghai (1885–1888)

Following the Gapsin Coup in 1884, Yun Chi-ho, though not a leader of the coup, had a long-standing friendship with Kim Ok-gyun, which led him to flee to Shanghai, China, on January 19, 1885. In Shanghai, Yun Chi-ho enrolled in The Anglo-Chinese College (中西學院), established by the Southern Methodist Episcopal Church of America. For four years, under the guidance of Dr. Young J. Allen and Professor W. B. Bonnell, he encountered Western civilization. This experience helped him shed the Sino-centric worldview of Koreans who saw China as the center of the world. Observing the daily life of Qing China firsthand during his studies in Shanghai, Yun Chi-ho developed a strong critical perspective towards the Qing dynasty, perceiving it as a particularly unclean and lazy nation.

This day is the New Year's morning in Qing China... Observations on Shanghai. . .On the street

they urinate indiscriminately, filling the city with a foul odor. Men, women, and children

have fingernails of varying lengths according to their rank. For example, the fingernail

length of a high-ranking noble is 5 cun, the next is 2 cun 5 fen, and the next is 1 cun 5 fen.

They do not brush their teeth. As a result, a thick layer of dirt, two to three cun deep,

accumulates, with a color like gold. When they open their mouths, a foul odor like dog feces emanates; they consider it a mark of distinction not to brush their teeth for many years. . .

They work day and night, appearing diligent, but their laziness can be inferred from their coarseness and crudeness. The people are fond of boasting, greatly admire superficiality, and love to make a fuss. They do not care for the nation's reputation, seeking only petty profits. Their food is so unhygienic that it is nauseating.

They work day and night, appearing diligent, but their laziness can be inferred from their coarseness and crudeness. The people are fond of boasting, greatly admire superficiality, and love to make a fuss. They do not care for the nation's reputation, seeking only petty profits. Their food is so unhygienic that it is nauseating.

They work day and night, appearing diligent, but their laziness can be inferred from their coarseness and crudeness. The people are fond of boasting, greatly admire superficiality, and love to make a fuss. They do not care for the nation's reputation, seeking only petty profits. Their food is so unhygienic that it is nauseating.

They work day and night, appearing diligent, but their laziness can be inferred from their coarseness and crudeness. The people are fond of boasting, greatly admire superficiality, and love to make a fuss. They do not care for the nation's reputation, seeking only petty profits. Their food is so unhygienic that it is nauseating.

They work day and night, appearing diligent, but their laziness can be inferred from their coarseness and crudeness. The people are fond of boasting, greatly admire superficiality, and love to make a fuss. They do not care for the nation's reputation, seeking only petty profits. Their food is so unhygienic that it is nauseating.

Their food is so unhygienic that it is nauseating.

In his diary, Yun Chi-ho frequently compares the unclean Qing China with the developed Japan and the backward Korean society. After spending three and a half years in Shanghai, his impression of Qing society was a 'pond filled with dirty water.' In his diary entry of July 22, 1884, he compares Qing China with Japan as follows: 5. Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China - The Summer Palace

I submit that when enacting laws, the benefit of the people should be the primary consideration,

and there is no need to deem the present as wrong simply because it adheres to the past.

There is none. Qing China is populous and vast, 11 times larger than Japan.

However, Japan, within about 30 years, achieved modernization (更張) and revitalization (振作), becoming known for its civilization and

prosperity. It has traded with foreign countries for 60 years, far surpassing Qing China.

Qing China, which has traded with foreign countries for 60 years, is 100 times inferior to Japan. What is the reason for this? Qing China

adhered to the old, while Japan was able to reform the old and emulate the new.

Our country has these two examples. The benefits and drawbacks of pursuing the new and preserving the old are clear and beyond doubt.

The benefits and drawbacks of pursuing the new and preserving the old are clear and beyond doubt.

he said.

Upon arriving in Shanghai, Yun Chi-ho sent an anonymous letter in the summer of 1885, in which he starkly criticized Qing China, comparing it to a dirty pond, a dilapidated house, and a senile old man.

1. To Anonymous Person

Shanghai,

June 5. 1885.

With your permission, I will express my opinion about China. It seems to me that this nation is like an old pond full of filthy water. The water might have been fresh and clean, when it was first filled, but it connects with no springs or streams that might feed it with fresh water, and it receives nothing except melted snow and rain; nor has it any drainage or, passage by which to deliver up its old water; so that, as years rolled on, its confined water has become stagnant and filthy, covered with weeds and filled with mire and vermin.

Again, China resembles an old house. No doubt it was well constructed once, but its owner has son neglected his house that the walls have all fallen down, and its timbers are rotten. Some of the tiles on the roof have been stolen off by its neighbours, while others are broken in pieces. So the roof is ready to fall down at the first blow of one of the violent storms that are prevailing in now a days.

Moreover, China is very much like an old foolish man, whose eyes are blind, and whose ears are stopped, so that he can neither see nor hear. But his tongue is perfect and his voice is very loud, indeed, he can make such a big noise that it alarms the neighbouring children.

Having such a great body, and such large limbs, and looking like the strongest man in the world, as, indeed, he believes himself to be, he is as proud as can be. Notwithstanding all this, he can not walk even as fast as a four or five years old child. And he is so cowardly and mean, that his neighbours consider him one of the most weak and 5. Zoong (佐翁) Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China_Ewha Womans University

contemptible men on the surface of the globe. What is still worse in

his character, is that, he is as wicked as he is proud, and injust as he is

self-conceited, and is so mean and shameless that he is pleased to have

the name of a barbarian as the title of a king.

Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China – During His Study Abroad in the United States (1888-1893)

Yun Chi-ho spent four years at the Anglo-Chinese College. Thanks to the systematic English education he received, he could now communicate freely in the language and felt no need to stay longer. However, upon witnessing the great misfortune that befell Park Jeon-yang, who had returned earlier, Yun Chi-ho found himself unable to return to Joseon. Furthermore, due to the issue of tuition fees if he went to Japan, he chose to study abroad in the United States with recommendation letters from Principal Allen and Professor Bonnell. Thus, Yun Chi-ho began his studies at Vanderbilt University in the United States on November 4, 1888, and in the summer of 1890, he transferred to Emory University, where he studied until October 1893. At that time, the United States knew of Japan and Qing China but not of Joseon, making him the foremost figure in introducing Joseon. Although Yun Chi-ho did not extensively mention Qing China during his stay in the United States, he recorded his views on Qing China in three diary entries. The first record of his view on Qing China, from 1889, states that Yun Chi-ho, while introducing Qing China and Japan at church, praised Qing China for the purpose of evangelism, going beyond personal aversion. He received a letter from Gunn. He received a letter from Mr. Mackintosh. At night, with Mr. Yamaguchi, at the More

Memorio church, Mr. Yamaguchi gave a speech about the progress of evangelism in Japan, and I delivered a speech on the situation of evangelism in Qing China, after which I showed the congregation various products from Japan and Qing China and returned at 12 o'clock. Tonight's speech was requested by the women's missionary society of the Presbyterian Church. Hundreds of boys and girls gathered at the missionary meeting, and there were quite a few elderly people. Although I did not say much in favor of Qing China, evangelism is a task ordained by Heaven; how could I, with my personal aversion, mock the work of evangelizing Qing China through my words and actions?

and I delivered a speech on the situation of evangelism in Qing China, after which I showed the congregation various products from Japan and Qing China and returned at 12 o'clock. Tonight's speech was requested by the women's missionary society of the Presbyterian Church.

and I delivered a speech on the situation of evangelism in Qing China, after which I showed the congregation various products from Japan and Qing China and returned at 12 o'clock. Tonight's speech was requested by the women's missionary society of the Presbyterian Church.

and returned at 12 o'clock. Tonight's speech was requested by the women's missionary society of the Presbyterian Church.

The speech tonight was requested by the women's missionary society of the Presbyterian Church.

Hundreds of boys and girls gathered at the missionary meeting, and there were quite a few elderly people.

Although I did not say much in favor of Qing China, evangelism is a task ordained by Heaven; how could I, with my personal aversion, mock the work of evangelizing Qing China through my words and actions?

mock the work of evangelizing Qing China through my words and actions?

Therefore, I praised the Chinese people and Qing China in this speech. I received a basket of flowers.

I received a basket of flowers. Today, I took the monthly examination in Roman History.

I received a basket of flowers. Today, I took the monthly examination in Roman History.

March 25, 1889 (24th, Monday, Clear)

However, it can be confirmed that Yun Chi-ho's negative view of Qing China was consistently maintained, as he recorded in his diary twice in 1889, in both Korean and English, that it would be better for Joseon to become a vassal state of Russia or Britain and learn modernization rather than becoming a vassal state of Qing China.

The day's work was as usual. Mr. Bonnell sent me a book discussing current affairs in our country, which I read in part. It details the untrustworthy and ignorant actions of our current government and explains Russia's intentions to annex our country. 5. Zoong (佐翁) Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China_Ewha Womans University

It details the untrustworthy and ignorant actions of our current government and explains Russia's intentions to annex our country.

It details the untrustworthy and ignorant actions of our current government and explains Russia's intentions to annex our country. 5. Zoong (佐翁) Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China_Ewha Womans University

Whether a nation or an individual, if one does not first cultivate one's own conduct well, what benefit can be gained from the help of friends in external matters?

What benefit can be gained from the help of friends in external matters?

If one does not first cultivate one's own conduct well, what benefit can be gained from the help of friends in external matters?

The urgent task for our country now is to cultivate domestic affairs well, protect the lives and property of the people, and solidify the foundation of the state, not diplomacy. Our nation's king and people only covet wealth, leaving the populace in distress, and...

The urgent task for our country now is to cultivate domestic affairs well, protect the lives and property of the people, and solidify the foundation of the state, not diplomacy. Our nation's king and people only covet wealth, leaving the populace in distress, and...

Our nation's king and people only covet wealth, leaving the populace in distress, and...

There are countless useless officials in the government, and all affairs lack direction, leading to a focus on short-term plans and a failure to pursue profound principles.

The government is preoccupied with immediate concerns, neglecting the pursuit of profound principles.

Petty and treacherous officials fill the king's court, disregarding the nation's safety and survival,

and are busy only with filling their own bellies.

With such a government and in such a perilous world, it is truly beyond imagination that a weak nation like ours could be

preserved. If we are to become a vassal state of Qing, it would be better

to become a vassal of Russia or Britain and learn their ways of modernization.

Considering the sins of our court over the past several hundred years, it is only right that such a corrupt and

precious government should perish, and it would be a blessing for millions of our people.

I have been uneasy all day, unable to describe how I feel.

In the evening, the monthly lecture meeting began. In the morning, I wrote a letter to Mr. Bonnell.

September 11, 1889 (17th, Friday, Clear)

Read some of the "Our Brother in Black." For the first time, I was

convinced that the dark slavery was, after all, the best thing that could

be done for the colored people under circumstances. Compare the conditions of the Indians with that of the negroes. "When a nation is

unfit to govern herself it is better for her to be governed and protected

and taught by a more enlightened and stronger people until she is able

to be independent." Say what you may bring as many real and unreal

charges against the English in the east Indian policy. "I stand by the

conviction and undeniable fact that India is infinitely better off under

English government than it ever did under others. It will be infinitely

better for Corea to be under the English, if she is unfit for self-

government, than to be under the China."

December 3rd, 1889

It can be confirmed that Yun Chi-ho's view of Qing China during his stay in the United States was positive when he viewed China as a target for evangelization based on his religious beliefs, but maintained a very negative perspective when considering Korea's national interests.

Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China - Teaching at the Anglo-Chinese College (1893 –

1895)

After completing his studies in the United States, Yun Chi-ho returned to Shanghai on November 14, 1893, and taught English at his alma mater, the Anglo-Chinese College, from November 1893 to early 1895. Similar to his time studying in the United States, Yun Chi-ho did not view Qing China negatively when looking at it through a religious lens; rather, he sharply criticized Westerners who viewed it negatively.

32. To Dr. Young J. Allen

Oxford,

December 18, 1893.

My dear Doctor:

A word or two if for nothing else, at least for bidding you "how d'ye!"

We are all doing first rate here. The college in all its departments is

doing fine.

Have you read Bishop Key's letter on China? I don't like that way of

"cussing out" China—though I have, as you know, always been more

or less prejudiced against the Chinese myself. He says most

dogmatically that "China, as compared with Christian countries is, a

thousand years behind in the race of national progress." By what rules

of mathematics has he arrived at such infinite conclusion expressed in

numbers "a thousand years"! He then goes on to say "she is afloat like

a great hulk without rudder or sail, drifting with wind and tide," etc.

To speak about China with a most steady government in the world as

being "afloat without rudder or sail!" "The statement of immortality

through Jesus Christ our Lord bewilders him" (the Chinaman) says the

Bishop. What's strange about that? Has not the learned and sympathetic(?) Bishop read somewhere in the Bible that "when they

heard of the resurrection of the dead, some mocked; and others said,

we will hear thee again of this matter"? The story of the cross has

always been a foolishness to a certain class of people, even in

Christian countries.7

While Yun Chi-ho was teaching English at the Anglo-Chinese College, the First Sino-Japanese War (Aug 1, 1894 – Apr 17, 1895) broke out. This was a groundbreaking war in East Asian history that marked the end of the traditional East Asian 'Sino-centric world order' and the emergence of a new power, Japan, as the hegemon in the region. Yun Chi-ho also paid close attention to this war.

33. To Dr. Warren A. Candler

September 20, 1894.

My dear Doctor:

In my last letter, I told you something about the strained relations

between Japan and China. The war was declared on the 1st August as

you know. The Far East has had nothing of so great an importance

than this war for a long while. On the 15 and 16 inst. a decisive battle

was fought at Piong-yang in the North of Corea between the Japanese 7 Yun Chi-ho, "Yun Chi-ho's Letters," December 18, 1893. 5. Yun Chi-ho's View of Qing China_Yihwa Garden

and Chinese forces. The latter consisting of 20,000 soldiers was utterly

routed by a Japanese force of 10,000. If the Chinese fought like they

lie, they could beat anybody under heaven. They brag most

outrageously. But the thorough rottenness of the Chinese government

is something dreadful.

You know which side of the struggle I sympathize with. If Japan wins

there is hope for the regeneration of Corea. If China gets the better of

the quarrel, I may just as well give up the reformation of Corea as a

dead thing. To deliver Corea from the corruption and deadening

influence of China is one of the greatest blessings that a Corean may

pray for this unhappy country.8

In his letter, Yun Chi-ho discusses the importance of the Sino-Japanese War, stating that if Qing China won, the modernization of Joseon would be impossible. Following Japan's victory in the war, Yun Chi-ho assessed that Joseon had finally become free from China's influence.

40.

June 28, 1895.

My dearest Doctor Candler: 8 Yun Chi-ho, "Letters of Yun Chi-ho (尹致昊書翰集)", September 20, 1894. The war is over. Peace may prevail in this part of Asia at least until

Russia be ready with Siberian R.R. or Japan be strong enough to take

Russia or China be powerful enough to settle her accounts with Japan.

That is while there are probabilities of war at any moment its actual

occurrence may be years off. In the meantime you may like to know

whether Corea has gained anything by the last storm. I think she has

on the whole. For:

1. The condition of Corea was such just before the war that she

couldn't go worse—if she went to the deuce.

2. The war broke up the nest of rascals who made it their sole business

to bleed the people to death by all sorts of exactions.

3. As one of the results of the strife Corea has been freed from the

influence of China.

4. The Royal power limited.

5. Useless offices abolished.

6. The caste system weakened.

7. The importance of education recognized.(Yun Chi-ho, June 28, 1895)

Conclusion: The Significance Yun Chi-ho Holds for Us Today

From his youth, Yun Chi-ho studied abroad in Shanghai and the United States, and later taught English in Shanghai. He held a negative view of Qing China as a corrupt and unsanitary nation, judging it to be an unsuitable model for his homeland's modernization. However, from a religious perspective, Yun Chi-ho did not always express negative views of Qing China, seeing it as a nation that also needed salvation through religious proselytization. In a sense, Yun Chi-ho, by directly traveling to Japan, Qing China, and the United States and experiencing and comparing different modernization models, foresaw that the Qing model was unsuitable for Joseon's true modernization. In reality, Qing China's attempts at modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement ultimately failed with its defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, leading to its eventual demise. Thus, through cool-headed comparative analysis, Yun Chi-ho was the most intellectually sensitive figure of the late Joseon period who attempted to modernize his country through a Westernized Japanese model. This does not negate Yun Chi-ho's later pro-Japanese activities. However, his assertion of his convictions in the late 19th century, when China dominated the Korean peninsula, cannot be disregarded.

Professor Ha Young-sun states, "Rather than dissecting their thoughts and actions with simplistic dichotomies such as 'expel the barbarians' and 'enlightenment,' we need to carefully revive their frustrated dreams with a discerning eye and a compassionate heart." Therefore, a re-evaluation of Yun Chi-ho is necessary, one that moves beyond simply classifying his view of Qing China as pro-Japanese enlightenment. He continuously studied in Joseon, Japan, China, and the United States, directly experiencing the turbulent late 19th century, and offered candid criticism out of genuine concern for his homeland's future. Through the "Diary of Yun Chi-ho," we belatedly realize that enlightenment did not necessarily equate to pro-Japanese sentiment during that era. Furthermore, as a lesson for today, it provides us with the valuable insight of cultivating the ability to view the present and future with a complex perspective that transcends simplistic dichotomies.

References Yun Chi-ho. "Diary of Yun Chi-ho (尹致昊日記)" Yun Chi-ho. "Letters of Yun Chi-ho (尹致昊書翰集)"

Jwaong Yun Chi-ho Cultural Project. 1998. "The Life and Thought of Yun Chi-ho." Seoul: Eul-yu Publishing Co.

Kim Young-hee. 1999. "A Short Biography of Mr. Jwaong Yun Chi-ho." Seoul: Jwaong Yun Chi-ho Cultural Project Committee.

Jang In-sung. 2012. "A Collection of Materials on Modern Korean International Politics." Seoul: Seoul National University Press.

Ha Young-sun. 2019. "A Correct View of Korean Diplomatic History." Seoul: Hanul Academy.