Shaping East and West through Clay: Bernard Leach's 'Marriage of East and West'

Finding a Center in Turbulent East Asia: The Young People of Sarangbang Embrace Kyushu

Kang Woo-seung Seoul National University

Category: EAI Sarangbang Excursions
Published: May 14, 2026

Kyushu Ceramic Cultural Center · Kang Woo-seung · Seoul National University

Introduction

Discourse surrounding culture has become a significant topic in international relations amidst the rapid flow of globalization and internationalization. Encounters between nations and cultural spheres are not confined to security and economics but are also actively unfolding on the cultural stage, leading many international relations scholars to focus on the power and influence of culture. Notably, Joseph Samuel Nye, Jr., a leading figure of the liberal school, argued that alongside traditional analyses of security and economics, a nation's cultural appeal, or 'soft power,' exerts considerable influence on the international stage.

The cultural stage is not independent of the traditional stages of international relations, namely security and economics. Terrorist acts by groups based on specific cultural or religious spheres, such as ISIS, exemplify cultural conflict. Such cultural conflicts reveal the limitations of existing security concepts and contribute to the emergence and development of the discourse on securitization. In essence, the emergence of the cultural stage is fundamentally altering the research subjects and directions within the field of international relations.

However, while interest in culture is growing, the question of how to understand the cultural stage remains challenging. Although many scholars are focusing on the cultural stage, it is not easy to accurately analyze the phenomena of the increasingly complex global stage brought about by the emergence of culture. By whom, in what way, and as what can a specific culture be understood? Edward Said's (2003) critique of Orientalism demonstrates how the understanding of culture can lead to problems, revealing by whom and in what manner these issues can arise. Furthermore, postcolonial and feminist discourses point to the issues of place (topos) and subject in contemporary international relations, exposing how the universalization of Western-centric and male-centric perspectives can distort the understanding of culture.

Another important issue arises: how should the relationship between cultural relativism and universal global norms or systems be explained? Debates surrounding cultural relativism continue to be active in the discourse on human rights. When conflicts arise between human rights norms as universal principles and anti-human rights values or practices inherited from specific cultural traditions, differing opinions are being advocated regarding the theoretical resources and practical directions for their resolution. Moreover, Seungjoo Lee's (2012) political-economic analysis of the unique dynamics of upward and downward networks in East Asian FTAs demonstrates that cultural factors create significant differences in the operation of the global economic system. In other words, how to define the actors exhibiting unique behavioral patterns within each culture and the universally applicable system on a global scale, how their interrelationships are formed, and what approach is desirable are among the most timely topics of discussion today.

The call for the emergence of Global International Relations, as argued by Acharya and Buzan (2019), encapsulates these concerns. They contend that arguments based on different historical and cultural foundations, leading to diverse metatheoretical stances, are being presented, and that a pluralistic universalism, which integrates these diverse perspectives in a complementary manner, is the goal to be pursued for a more accurate explanation of the changing global stage. Pluralistic universalism is an attempt to establish a framework for a universal international relations that can adequately explain global phenomena through the integration of perspectives based on diverse ontologies and epistemologies. While their argument is gaining new attention in the field of international relations, is it truly a novel line of inquiry that has never been raised before?

Bernard Howell Leach (1887-1979), a British potter, was an individual who contemplated the cultural encounter between the East, particularly East Asia, and the West, centered in Europe. While his ideas can be seen as pioneering in comparison to current discussions, there are few studies in the field of international relations that have examined his arguments on cultural synthesis. Leach's efforts were not limited to the art world. The reason Leach, who received professional art education, went to Japan was to understand Eastern culture. While his life as a potter began in Japan, he sought to explore desirable values for humanity beyond the boundaries of East and West through the art of ceramics. Amidst the international political changes of the 20th century, marked by deepening encounters between the distinct cultural spheres of East and West, Leach contemplated the direction of development for lifestyles encompassing all of human culture and life, transcending cultural boundaries. In this process, he recognized his unique position and the role it entailed, actively engaging in various activities. "The phrase 'the Marriage of East and West' encapsulates the main theme Leach explored throughout his life" (Suzuki, 2004). He pondered the desirable ways of combining the distinct cultural characteristics of the East and West, and these reflections are projected in his works and writings. In essence, Leach, through the medium of ceramics, dreamed of and practiced the grand goal of integrating human cultures.

This paper examines Bernard Leach's life as an artist and his artworks to gain insight into his understanding of the East and West and the kind of encounter between these two cultures he envisioned. It also explores the significance of Leach's thought in understanding contemporary cultural discourse.

Leach, Explorer of the East and Potter

Leach's encounter with the East began in earnest with his journey to Japan in 1910. For Leach, who was born in Hong Kong in 1887 and had lived in various places in Japan and Southeast Asia, the East was an equal world, much like the West. Having encountered Japanese life and culture through the books of Lafcadio Hearn (1850-1904), Leach became increasingly interested in the East, where he had spent his childhood, and set out for Japan in 1910.

The Shirakaba school, a group of young Japanese intellectuals, had a significant influence on Leach's process of understanding the East. Leach, who had received professional art education in Britain, focusing on drawing and etching, wished to exhibit his etchings at a gallery in Tokyo in 1910. It was there that he first encountered the Shirakaba school. The Shirakaba school was a group of young intellectuals who pursued the modernization of Japan by proactively embracing Western philosophy and art. They played an active role in introducing Western culture to Japan by publishing the magazine 'Shirakaba' and regularly holding exhibitions of Western works, particularly those of the Post-Impressionist artists. It was inevitable that the encounter between those seeking to understand the West and Leach, who sought to understand the East, would develop into a deep relationship. Leach developed his perspective on the East through his artistic and cultural activities with them. Subsequently, through intellectual exchange with the Shirakaba school, Leach deepened his understanding of Eastern culture. Among them, his exchange with Yanagi Sōetsu (1889-1961) played a significant role in Leach's process of understanding the East. Yanagi Sōetsu was a leader of the Mingei movement and an intellectual who developed a unique philosophy combining religious mysticism and aesthetics. He presented a Buddhist aesthetic based on Zen Buddhism, and Leach and Yanagi mutually influenced each other in the formation of this artistic perspective, with Leach also being greatly influenced by Yanagi's philosophy.

While continuing his training as a potter, Leach sought a leader with a deep and broad understanding of art, education, and philosophy as part of his exploration of Eastern culture. He was greatly impressed by an article written by Alfred Westharp, a writer active in China, titled "4. Shaping Eastern and Western Lives Through Clay: Bernard Leach's 'Marriage of East and West'" at the Kyushu Ceramic Cultural Center. Consequently, Leach traveled to China to pursue philosophical considerations encompassing both East and West, with Westharp as his mentor. Although his intellectual exchange with Dr. Westharp did not yield satisfactory results, his extensive experience with high-quality ceramics such as celadon and white porcelain produced during the Song and Tang dynasties significantly influenced his contemplation of ceramic aesthetics standards.

Returning to Japan in 1916, Leach dedicated himself to his career as a potter. While his interactions with the Shirakaba school, including Yanagi Sōetsu, were pivotal in deepening his understanding of the East, his growth as a potter was significantly shaped by his encounters with two individuals: Tomimoto Kenkichi (1886-1963) and Hamada Shōji (1894-1978). The members of the Shirakaba school were primarily intellectuals from elite backgrounds, graduates of Imperial Universities, and their activities centered on academic exploration and cultural criticism of philosophy, political thought, and art. In contrast, Tomimoto and Hamada chose lives as artists. Tomimoto was someone Leach met early in his visit to Japan, and they later influenced each other greatly in their artistic expression through their shared pottery activities. Tomimoto began his pottery training under the sixth generation Kenzan, Urano Shigekichi (1851-1923), a successor to the renowned Edo-period potter Ogata Kenzan. During the 1910s, when Leach lived in Japan, they exchanged many ideas about the artistic expression of ceramics.

His encounter with Hamada Shōji occurred in 1919. Hamada, having seen Leach's work at an exhibition in Japan, visited Leach's studio. This meeting led Hamada to play a crucial role as a supportive collaborator when Leach returned to Britain in 1920 to pursue his pottery activities. Hamada accompanied Leach when he established his first studio in St. Ives, Cornwall, upon his return to Britain in 1920. There, Hamada provided significant assistance in building Leach's kiln and actively participated in many of Leach's early works. Hamada later became a leading potter in Japan, and Leach was deeply impressed by the intuitive, unconscious, or even meditative (muga) values in craft production, as evidenced in Hamada's highly skilled work (Leach, 2012).

Leach's encounters with Korea and Korean ceramics also profoundly influenced his ceramic philosophy. This also had a significant impact on the establishment of Yanagi's Mingei philosophy, and Leach shared this perception with Yanagi. During his time in China, Leach regarded Korean ceramics, along with Song and Tang dynasty ceramics, as exemplars of 'standard ceramics.' The practicality, understated decoration, and the natural texture of the clay revealed through brushstroke techniques, along with the Korean atmosphere expressed through the emphasis on lines, largely align with the standards for ceramics discussed in Leach's book, 'The Potter's Book.' His impressions from Joseon and Goryeo ceramics can be found throughout his writings, significantly shaping his thoughts on ceramic standards (Leach, 2012).

'The Marriage of East and West' - Leach's Ceramic Philosophy and Worldview

1. Leach's Ceramic Philosophy and Worldview Embedded in 'The Marriage of East and West'

After his encounters with the East, Leach returned to Britain, established his studio, and gradually expanded his influence in the field of ceramics. As de Val (2014) suggests, the fact that he was the only individual with experience living and training in ceramics in the East undoubtedly highlighted Leach's presence. However, the aesthetic standards, decorative techniques, production methods, and underlying philosophy of the ceramics he produced resonated with many, suggesting that the content Leach presented possessed considerable appeal. This section aims to analyze Leach's understanding of the East and ceramics, which he internally formed through his encounters with the East, and further, his thoughts on the cultural encounter between East and West, thereby examining the points that allowed Leach to emerge as an appealing figure in his time. Bernard Leach's pottery activities were an attempt to bring about fundamental changes in aesthetics and culture. 'The Marriage of East and West' aimed to create new values for life, new aesthetic standards, and a holistic transformation of life based on these, by complementarily combining the conceptual richness inherent in the Eastern tradition of craftsmanship with the material pragmatism based on Western scientific and industrial development. To this end, Leach defined the characteristics of Eastern and Western cultures as opposing poles, ultimately envisioning an ideal state where these opposing poles are overcome, leading to integration into a unified human culture as 'the One.' This is not a process where the influence of one culture replaces another, but rather a process involving the interaction of two equal cultures standing on a firm traditional foundation. This chapter will delve deeper into Leach's philosophy of intercultural encounters and examine his practical activities and studio craft movement.

2. Leach's Perception of Eastern and Western Cultures and Their Combination

Leach's worldview, pursued through his pottery activities in the West after his encounters with the East, is well represented by the key phrase 'The Marriage of East and West.' To understand Leach's philosophy, it is crucial to grasp the meaning of the terms 'Oriental' and 'Occidental' he used and to understand the specific manner of 'marriage' that occurs in their encounter.

His understanding of the East began within the historical context of his time, characterized by the deepening modernization or industrialization of the West. Leach sensed that different developmental trajectories were unfolding in the East and West in the early 20th century, and he believed that encounters between East and West were becoming increasingly frequent and would continue to intensify in the future (Leach, 2012).

Leach explains the distinct cultural characteristics of the East and West, formed through these developmental processes, by assigning them various opposing poles. He then points out the problems inherent in each cultural sphere and argues that these issues can be resolved through the encounter and appropriate combination of these different 'extremes.'

First, his understanding of the West stems from a critical awareness of the problems arising from deepening industrialization. Leach believed that the mass production system, which emerged with Western industrialization, was degrading the quality and beauty of crafts. This is because, in the production process of crafts within the mass production system, the pursuit of economic profit takes precedence over the pursuit of beauty, leading to a decline in interest in excellent form and design in craft production. In this reality, Leach interprets the balance between materials and spirits as having an excessive influence of materials. In response, Leach aligns the East with spirit. Through his encounters with the Shirakaba school, he felt a fullness and vitality of spiritual elements, and through education that emphasized Chinese classics, he felt that the East was overflowing with spiritual values. However, he also described the problem of the East as 'decay,' pointing out that it was 'due to an excess of spiritual life and idealism not supported by reason and accurate practical knowledge of things' (re-quoted from Suzuki 2004, 5).

If the first dichotomy defining East and West was the opposition between material and idea, the second important aspect to consider is individualism versus collectivism. Leach criticized excessive Western individualism for leading to the loss of communal elements, which were the source of life and a noble, change-bringing influence. This is because psychological, religious, and aesthetic standards, which have carried humanistic values, are inherently communal (Leach, 1951). In contemporary times, with the Western tendency towards individualism excessively emphasizing personal uniqueness, aesthetic standards lose their traditional basis of communal consensus and are replaced by uniqueness and rarity.

Leach observed that the collectivist characteristics based on tradition remained in the East. However, he did not consider the collectivist characteristics attributed to Eastern culture as solely an Eastern trait but rather as a consequence of the development of Western individualism. Over long periods, East and West have existed based on their respective distinct traditions, and what Leach sought to achieve through these opposing poles was the revival of traditional Western values. In this effort, Leach undertook endeavors such as rediscovering traditional British slip-ware techniques. In other words, the assignment of the dichotomy of individualism and collectivism is interpreted as a means to resolve the problems facing the West.

Furthermore, the cultures of East and West, defined through the concept of dichotomy, were perceived by Leach not in terms of superiority or inferiority but in terms of diversity. Leach viewed the cultures of the West and East, which had developed along fundamentally different traditions, as equal, with neither possessing superiority. To him, the East and West were distinct entities at opposite poles.

Then why should cultures at these opposite poles be combined? As mentioned above, each culture at its extreme faces its own problems. Moreover, seeing the increasing exchange between different cultures as a reality and an inevitable future in the flow of globalization, Leach believed that only through specific methods of combination could such exchanges yield mutually complementary positive results. What, then, is this method? The meaning can be found in Leach's use of the term 'marriage' to describe the desirable 'meeting' between East and West. Leach conceived of a specific method of combination based on the Buddhist concept of 'Oneness through the overcoming of dualism.' This philosophy can be seen as influenced by Yanagi's established Buddhist aesthetics and the thought of Confucius and Lao Tzu encountered during his life in China.

Yanagi, who profoundly influenced Leach's thought, describes the overcoming of the dualism between East and West from the perspective of Buddhist aesthetics as follows:

It is not that East and West should become the same. They should remain diverse without falling into antagonism.

This realm of harmony is our true dwelling. However, to seek it

solely in the East or solely in the West is unjustifiable

and, above all, an unfortunate conclusion (Yanagi, 1989).

From the perspective of Buddhist aesthetics, overcoming dualism through unity does not mean everyone becoming the same. It signifies a state of harmony where everyone becomes one, yet maintains their individual differences within that unity. Leach shares this perspective. Leach expresses this process of unity through the word 'marriage.' This can be seen as understanding the process of new cultures emerging from intercultural encounters in a manner analogous to the birth of a child from the union of a couple. The child possesses the distinct unique characteristics of each parent while also existing as a being with new characteristics.

Leach's thoughts on this combination are relatively clearly illustrated through the interpretation of a phrase appearing on the final page of 'Beyond East and West.' Leach concludes his book with the following sentence: "I saw the future of the marriage of East and West, and heard the echo of a child's voice from beyond the path of time. How much longer? How much longer (Leach, 2012)?" The 'echo of a child's voice from beyond the path of time' can be interpreted as the new, harmonious, and unified global culture that will be born from the marriage of East and West. This voice is addressing 'me,' referring to Bernard Leach, with a pleading tone, "How much longer? How much longer?" This reveals Leach's passion for the advent of a future that will arise from the combination of East and West. Furthermore, by positing such a future as already existing, Leach conveys his conviction that encounters between different cultures are inevitable. On the other hand, by establishing 'me' as the subject hearing this voice, it can be inferred that Leach assigns himself a role as the individual who will lead this combination.

In essence, for Leach, the combination of Eastern and Western cultures signifies a state where their unique characteristics are maintained while achieving harmony. Leach, with somewhat strong language, emphasizes that such encounters should not be 'prostitution' or 'mesalliance' but rather a matter of 'marriage' (Leach, 2012). This underscores the point that in the process of marriage, i.e., the encounter between East and West, both entities must face each other as equal subjects and attempt a union that allows them to maintain their respective subjectivities. In addition, there must be a willingness, passion, and dedication for the voluntary acceptance of the synthesis derived from the encounter with external cultures. Only through such preparation can East and West achieve a successful reception of external cultures as a 'marriage,' rather than 'prostitution' that destroys each other's egos, or 'mesalliance' that leads to unhappiness due to a lack of subjectivity and asymmetry.

Another prerequisite for this process of encounter to occur properly is the revival of each culture's traditions. The importance of reviving tradition is linked to the power of assimilation, which is the ability to accept the influence of other cultures. Assimilating power carries a similar meaning to 'subjective reception.' According to Leach, for the influence of external cultures in art or industry to be accepted as a growth factor for one's own culture, it must undergo a process of organic assimilation, which requires a healthy organization. In other words, as subjects of combination, East and West must possess a firm foundation of their own unique traditional values.

Applying this to pottery activities, the superficial imitation of the forms, patterns, colors, and techniques of Song and Tang dynasty ceramics holds no further significance beyond being a mimicry of the outward manifestations of external cultures. It excludes the possibility of new life emerging from the new combinations between different cultures. Rather, such imitation leads to the negation of one's own cultural traditions in pottery styles, resulting in a "miserable half-mixture" (re-quoted from Suzuki 2004, 6) that loses its aesthetic standards. Only through understanding the aesthetic foundations and traditional values inherent in Song and Tang dynasty ceramics and subjectively accepting them while maintaining one's own traditional foundation can the positive outcomes of intercultural combination be truly realized. And for such internal acceptance, a vibrant social organization capable of receiving it, that is, a social organization based on the firmness of traditional values and an receptive attitude towards external cultures, must precede it.

3. Leach's Ceramic Philosophy and the Studio Craft Movement

Leach presents a unique argument connecting culture as a holistic way of life based on tradition with craftsmanship or pottery as a mode of expressing beauty. This stems from the fact that ceramics are both works of art expressing beauty and everyday items used in daily life. Considering this, Leach argues that the beauty of ceramics is only achieved when they possess both aesthetic excellence, manifested through form, pattern, color, and texture, and practicality for convenient use in daily life. He further argues that when these aesthetic standards are accepted by the community and ceramics are produced according to these standards, the beauty and humanity lost due to mechanical production can be restored in daily life. Leach believed that the problems of the West, caused by an excess of materialism, could be overcome by embracing Eastern culture. This section aims to examine Leach's philosophy of craft and worldview in more detail.

Leach sought to overcome the problems of the West by combining with the East, and he attempted this primarily through pottery. These attempts can be broadly examined in terms of 1) the subject of production, 2) the subject of use, 3) the production process, and 4) aspects of ceramic style such as form, texture, and materials. Leach criticizes mechanical production and the separation of human labor due to industrialization, advocates for collective production methods like guilds, rejects the use of artificial materials, and emphasizes forms and expressive styles that meet the requirements of practicality, non-intentionality, and traditionality. It can be seen that he envisioned a process whereby these everyday ceramic items, produced in this manner, are used by the public, allowing the community to attain a universality of beauty.

First, Leach categorizes potters, the subjects of ceramic production, into two types and assigns specific roles to each. This point shares common ground with Yanagi's philosophy of craft and the concept of Mingei aesthetics. Yanagi argues that "'personal beauty' is inferior to 'beauty that transcends the individual'" (Yanagi, 1989). He asserts that it is not individuality itself that is important, but rather that which transcends individuality can serve as an absolute standard of beauty. The reason why such beauty can be created by 'ignorant artisans' is that in their adherence to nature and tradition, nature and tradition guarantee beauty for them. This is based on a naturalistic perspective and a perspective of muga (selflessness). Because the craft object, rather than the artist, is the bearer of beauty, crafts created by those who have embodied a deep understanding of natural materials and traditional expression methods, capable of embodying nature and tradition directly into ceramics through countless repetitions and mastery, can possess beauty.

In contrast, for Yanagi, the value of 'individual artists' lies in their role as guides who can recognize beauty, unlike the 'ignorant artisans' who create it.

In today's declining folk art, who can determine the goal of beauty?

It is the individual artist who can determine this. In today's world where everyone is unique,

we need people who can properly appreciate and discern the beauty within works.

The field of craft needs such

leaders, and the individual artist must serve as a medium for the next era to become an era of folk art again.

Therefore, their value lies not so much in their works as in their ability to understand beauty, that is, their contribution of thought

(Yanagi, 1989).

Leach's classification of potters also follows Yanagi's typology. The potters Leach met in Japan were those who inherited tradition through apprenticeships, such as the sixth generation Kenzan, or rural and village potters, or were 'unlettered artisans' who carried on this tradition through collective work, or in Leach's terms, 'craftsman-potters (or artisan-potters)'. These individuals, in contrast to the 'individual artist' who emerged in modern times, or in Leach's expression, 'artist-potters', worked within a consciousness of preserving tradition across generations. The reason the works created by these potters possessed beauty was the result of a spontaneous state where a 'power of the other' was exerted.

However, the problem in the West was that those engaged in handicraft were no longer the simple peasants seen in Japan. In the West, or Britain, it was now art students who had received professional artistic training and possessed self-consciousness who were engaged in pottery production. Regarding this situation, Leach points out that "in the past, tradition would have exerted its gentle influence, but in our time, these things do not manifest, and much waste is unavoidable" (Leach, 1951).

However, like Yanagi, Leach proposes a normative role for artist-potters to play in accepting practical changes. Leach argues that self-conscious artist-potters should take on the role of maintaining the vitality (vitality) that allows tradition to develop, based on a sufficient understanding of tradition. Vitality signifies the expressiveness of the artist's soul and culture. Through this vitality, the humanistic and aesthetic values of crafts can be maximized, and ultimately, only through the acceptance of collective aesthetic standards based on tradition can the human expressions of artists, which can be evaluated as possessing aesthetic value, be integrated into their works.

In this sense, Leach emphasizes a collective work system, similar to the guild system of the Middle Ages, within the contemporary pottery system. Notably, Leach attempts this form of work at his own studio, Leach Pottery. Through collective work, potters can share and internalize aesthetic standards. In other words, he devised a working method that revives common aesthetic standards, lost due to the prevalence of individualism, and allows workers to internalize them.

On the other hand, a point of differentiation from Yanagi is that Leach believed that opportunities for creating works that allow each artist-potter in his studio to express their individuality should be guaranteed. Leach believed that "the judgment of true beauty must be based on the continuous process of verifying the highest standards of the past through the present" (Leach, 2012). While aesthetic standards should be judged based on tradition, these standards must evolve through individual creativity in line with the changes of the times. In other words, what Leach sought through this collective craft system was the healthy expression of creativity through the manifestation of the individual's conscious domain, based on an appropriate understanding or internalization of tradition. This can be evaluated as an effort to restore aesthetic standards, which had been replaced by uniqueness and rarity due to the loss of communal elements, to communal aesthetic standards based on evolving tradition.

Secondly, from the perspective of the user, crafts imbued with beauty, created based on the role of these producers, result in outcomes that can be used by the entire populace, not just a select few connoisseurs. Leach's thoughts on this are well-expressed in the following passage:

In Conrwall, we initiated a new way of life driven by collective work and common

ideals, and we believe we have combined the needs of the individual and the

people. Perhaps the closest

example would be a small orchestra under a composer-conductor, which is willingly

accepted by its members. Collective work requires

leadership, but it is not coercive, economic, or 4. Shaping East and West through Clay: Bernard Leach's 'Marriage of East and West' _ Kyushu Ceramic Cultural Center

purely technical. Nor is it a democratic committee that compromises

low aesthetic values (Leach,

2012).

Thirdly, in the process of production, Leach advocates for the method of handicraft. This aligns with his critique of mass production systems. For Leach, handicraft is an expression of humanity, as it allows human hands to express the beauty bestowed by tradition and nature. However, the factory-based mass production system, where machines replace human hands, deprives humanity of the opportunity for expression, leading to a loss of humanity (Leach, 1951). Yet, there is the issue of securing sufficient production volume for all people to use these crafts. The collective work method adopted by Leach aimed to secure adequate production through division of labor.

Finally, regarding the form, decoration, and materials of pottery, Leach emphasizes naturalism and the virtue of practicality. Through an appropriate balance that maximizes the natural characteristics of the material in terms of texture and form, combined with practicality, pottery can possess vitality (Leach, 1951). Since crafts are essentially made for human use, if their value as crafts is lost by emphasizing only decorative effects like fine art, neglecting practicality, then they lose their value as crafts. Furthermore, in the process of expressing the form and texture of pottery, Leach positively accepts the interference of nature that occurs during the firing process. For Leach, unintended cracks, glaze colors, and imbalances may be accidental to humans, but they are intentional and natural results for nature. Leach holds the view that he can feel greater vitality in such pottery, which reflects nature as it is, than in the excessive precision pursued in mechanical production. This is also a significant reason why he emphasizes handicraft in his workshop craft system.

Bernard Leach's Understanding of 'The East' – Orientalism?

1. Critical Evaluation of Bernard Leach

Bernard Leach's activities caused significant repercussions in Western society, and his influence was absolute. During the 20th century when he gained fame, the main debate in the ceramics world revolved around 'Leach or not Leach,' with other issues such as the development of glazes using chemical techniques being treated as secondary (de Waal, 2014).

However, after his death, critical evaluations of Leach began to emerge. While acknowledging the profound influence and achievements of Leach in shaping the aesthetic standards of the ceramics world and crafts, these critics raised issues regarding Leach's perceptions of the East and West. Specifically, critical perspectives began to question whether the folk craft movement and workshop craft movement, led by figures like Bernard Leach and Yanagi Sōetsu who positioned themselves as intermediaries between East and West, were truly based on an appropriate understanding of the East and West. 4. Shaping East and West through Clay: Bernard Leach's 'Marriage of East and West' _ Kyushu Ceramic Cultural Center

Criticism of Leach primarily concerns his understanding of Eastern culture. Was Leach's experience of the East biased and limited? Is what Leach understood as the characteristics of Eastern culture truly representative of Eastern culture? Is Leach making the error of defining the East from a Western perspective? These criticisms are made from all-encompassing perspectives, including the personal dimension of Leach's life, the meta-theoretical dimension of Leach's thought, and the contradictions between the content of his ideas and his social practices.

De Waal (2014) criticizes Leach's achievements as being based on a superficial understanding of the East from an imperialist perspective. The Japan that Leach encountered was seen only through the lens of a small group of intellectuals who loved art, such as the Shirakaba school, and most of the individuals Leach interacted with, including Yanagi, belonged to the socio-economic elite. Therefore, De Waal points out that Leach's understanding of the East was superficial, mediated, or distorted.

Furthermore, De Waal (1997) points out that Leach and Yanagi characterized the industrialization of Britain and the West as 'lapsarian' and used terms describing things before this fall, such as 'natural,' 'direct,' 'authentic,' and 'untutored,' as content for their aesthetics. He further criticizes that the artisans in the rural areas of Japan they encountered were defined as the ideal 'Homo Orientalis' possessing all these qualities from before the 'fall,' and this image was transmitted through Yanagi and Leach as the image of the East. Leach made the error of assuming that the purity of traditional artisans, whose sense of self was erased through training and repetition, could be restored, and he categorized them as rural, illiterate, humble, untainted beings who would otherwise be ruined by 'high-collar' thinking.

Yuko Kikuchi (2004) defines Yanagi's understanding of the East and West, formed through his interactions with Leach, as 'Oriental Orientalism.' Kikuchi argues that Yanagi was influenced by figures critical of Western industrialization, such as John Ruskin (1819-1900) and William Morris (1834-1896) and their Arts and Crafts Movement, in forming his concept of folk craft, and criticizes the claim that Yanagi's folk craft concept possesses originality. Furthermore, she argues that Yanagi's Buddhist aesthetics are a result of adopting an Orientalist perspective that otherizes the East to define the West, and that within this perception of the East, Japan was positioned as the pioneering nation of the East, leading to a process of double othering, where regions of the East other than Japan were further otherized. Ultimately, Yanagi's Buddhist aesthetics and definition of crafts are an Orientalism of the East created through a process of double othering.

Kikuchi (2004) argues that this limitation at the ontological level arose from the pursuit of diversity without the anti-essentialist characteristics of postmodern discourse, leading to a pursuit of hybridization on a dichotomous and essentialist foundation. She further analyzes that the global acceptance of Yanagi's Buddhist aesthetics and the folk craft movement based on it was possible because it accepted Orientalism, established by the West, as a definition of the East, and because the 'mystical feeling towards the unknown East found in Orientalism' aligned with Yanagi's mystical ideological foundation that equates art and religion. According to Kikuchi, the historical background of the Arts and Crafts Movement already having taken place in the West through figures like William Blake (1757-1827) and Ruskin also facilitated the acceptance of Yanagi's folk craft movement. In other words, Yanagi's thought was also born as a result of the influence of modern Western thought, and although it was re-labeled as Eastern or Japanese, its fundamental roots were the same as the Orientalist perspective of the West, making its acceptance easy. Finally, on a content level, another criticism commonly raised by De Waal (1997) and Kikuchi (2004) is the criticism of the mystical aspect (mysticism) revealed in their thought. Kikuchi points out that the mystical thought that emphasizes the emphasis on tradition and the ecstatic characteristics in their perspective is contradictory to the actual evaluation of their ceramic activities and works (Kikuchi, 2004). This ambiguity between ideological tendencies and actual ceramic activities makes it difficult to properly understand Leach's and Yanagi's thoughts on crafts and their aesthetic judgment criteria, resulting in their dogmatic acceptance and consequently leading those in their lineage to face criticism.

De Waal offers a more forceful critique. He argues that through the Orientalism, characterized by exotic and melancholic feelings towards the East presented by Lafcadio Hearn and Whistler, Leach positioned the East, and Japan, not as objects to be understood but as 'mysterious' entities, and that this perspective on the East held immense appeal for Yanagi (de Waal, 1997). This is also connected to Yanagi's socio-economic background. De Waal argues that 'Yanagi's relationship with rural Japan was akin to that of an ethnographer' (de Waal, 1997). Artisans, such as potters in rural areas, were exotic beings to Yanagi, just as they were to Leach. Therefore, De Waal criticizes Yanagi for being unable to escape criticism for Orientalism, as he adopted an Orientalist mystical perspective on the East as his framework for understanding Japan and the East. Leach, who shared Yanagi's ideology and developed it, also seems difficult to escape this criticism.

2. Bernard Leach's Dream – Marriage of Cultures

Given the aforementioned criticisms that Leach and Yanagi, who dreamed of the union of different cultures, East and West, and sought to act as intermediaries, were in fact unable to escape a superficial understanding of the East or the distorted Western perception of the East known as Orientalism, the encounter and union of East and West they pursued becomes a process that gives rise to further distortions and othering.

The critical studies by De Waal, Kikuchi, and others seem to clearly reveal the limitations stemming from the historical context in which Leach and Yanagi found themselves. The early 20th century, when Leach began exploring the East, was a period when Orientalist perspectives and imperialism reached their peak. Furthermore, at a time when exchanges between East and West were just beginning, Japan, which was the first to actively engage in exchanges with the West as international life began, likely occupied the image of the East. Coincidentally, it was natural for Leach, who spent most of his childhood in the East in Japan, to decide to go to Japan as his first step in understanding the East. Within these historical and personal flows, these limitations may have been insurmountable for Leach and Yanagi as they attempted to understand the East, an object whose very existence is ambiguous and unclear.

Conversely, these critical evaluations can also be seen as the result of Leach's pursuit of cultural fusion and his efforts towards it. Leach perceived himself as being in a unique position to lead the encounter between East and West and lived his life passionately towards this goal, but he did not consider himself as someone who fully understood the East and West or had fully grasped the method of their union. His attachment to the East and his emphasis on the importance of understanding the East can be seen as a critique of the self-centered and superficial perspectives that the West held towards the East. Leach pointed out the lack of effort in the West to understand the East, emphasized the need for a higher level of effort to know the East, and his entire life was a process of unceasing effort to understand the East (Suzuki, 2004).

Moreover, for him, who was exposed to Eastern culture from childhood, the East and West were 'words representing the diversity of cultures that exist on this earth' (Suzuki, 2004). In other words, Leach grants equal status to the East and West. This is clearly evident in his argument that the encounter between East and West should occur in a specific way, which he expresses as marriage. While the explanation of the cultural characteristics of East and West through various oppositions within the ideological structure of overcoming duality may be debatable in terms of content, his pluralistic attitude towards other cultures can be seen as different from the Western-centric Orientalist perspective that otherizes other cultures. For Leach, the encounter between East and West was to be a voluntary meeting, communication, and reconciliation within a horizontal relationship. In that sense, Leach's passion and effort in exploring cultures can be seen as closer to Said's critical stance on Orientalism.

Meanwhile, Leach fully recognized both the inevitability of cultural fusion due to changing times and its difficulties. Leach posits East and West not merely as different, but as two extremes within the concept of duality. Although harmony between these two extremes is extremely difficult, this difficulty was evidence that such an attempt at union would yield greater results.

Only today have I clearly realized for the first time that true mixing,

or blending, of extremes, whether in life or art, is the highest goal

we can strive to achieve. And that the tone of contempt that

accompanies the use of the word 'ai no ko' is based on a justifiable contempt for the terrible hybrid results that will inevitably come with the meeting of East and West in all aspects.

is based on a justifiable contempt for the terrible hybrid results that will inevitably come with the meeting of East and West in all aspects.

Until this morning, I believed that marriage between Japan and the Anglo-American world was purely the fault of the offspring. Even if

it is not the parents' fault, I have come to realize that the unification of two extremes into a new whole increases in difficulty and value according to the differences between the two extremes (reproduced from Suzuki, 2004, pp. 6-7).

new whole, increases in difficulty and value according to the differences between the two extremes (reproduced from Suzuki, 2004, pp. 6-7).

reproduced from Suzuki, 2004, pp. 6-7).

In summary, even if his understanding of Eastern culture is revealed to be insufficient in terms of content, his persistent philosophical contemplation and practical life can be characterized as an expression of his desire for universal humanistic values through continuous exploration of cultural diversity. In that sense, his life and art can be seen as a remarkable example of the dynamic cultural exchange of the 20th century. Furthermore, the fact that the issues of cultural understanding and conflict have re-emerged as key topics in the 21st century demonstrates the relevance of Leach's intuitive insights. His life can be evaluated as a continuous process of ontological, epistemological, and methodological contemplation, along with active and passionate practice, for the grand and bold social project of achieving a unified humanity, accurately grasping the trends of the times. The criticisms of Orientalism leveled against Leach can be interpreted as following Leach's ideology, which sought mutual understanding between East and West as subjects. 4. Shaping East and West through Clay: Bernard Leach's 'Marriage of East and West' _ Kyushu Ceramic Cultural Center

Conclusion

For Leach, truths such as human nature and beauty were attainable not through reason but through intuition. Reason, for him, was 'a fine assistant in the work of intuitive enlightenment' (Leach, 1951). This brings to mind the arguments of Thomas Kuhn, which greatly impacted the intellectual history of the 20th century. His assertion that the development of human knowledge proceeds through the replacement of paradigms with superior aesthetic value can be interpreted as intuitive insights, which are excellent and beautiful, ultimately driving knowledge progress within the sufficient utilization of rational tools. In other words, it shows that human knowledge is not solely understood through the rationalistic dimension based on reason.

From this perspective, the criticism of Orientalism surrounding Leach warrants reconsideration. How can we understand a culture? If the influence from Western culture made the Shirakaba school's and Yanagi's understanding of the East superficial, then understanding Eastern culture cannot be achieved solely by being Eastern. Nor can it be definitively stated that only those who have not been influenced by other cultures can understand their own culture. These ontological characteristics of an individual do not guarantee their status as a subject capable of understanding culture. Therefore, for the subject seeking to understand a culture, the epistemological attitude is crucial. To understand a culture, a process of detaching oneself from the ego, that is, creating distance from oneself, must precede. Then, by creating distance from the cultural phenomena encountered, one must delve beneath the surface of the phenomena to confront the roots that create them. Finally, through the union of the horizon of the roots of the culture encountered and one's own horizon, we can say that 'I' have understood 'that culture.'

Bernard Leach's process of pursuing intuitive insight into the East embodies this process. Through the cultural characteristics inherent in the experiences he encountered in his life in Japan, and through the process of subjectively accepting them, Leach came to understand the East, and he attempted to expand this process of subjective acceptance and encounter to the process of encounters between cultural spheres. He primarily attempted to understand Eastern culture through the cultural artifact of pottery. He considered pottery and human essence to be of the same origin, and therefore, his exploration of the essence of pottery and craft aesthetics was an attempt to derive beautiful arguments for aesthetic criteria characterized by parsimony and explanatory power. From this perspective, the criticism of Orientalism against Leach, who attempted to understand the East and further developed a new humanistic value that forms the cultural foundation of unified humanity, seems inappropriate. Rather, he was adopting an appropriate method for understanding culture, moving away from reason-centric Western thought.

The argument by the Marxist political theorist Chantal Mouffe regarding the importance of art represents the appropriateness and significance of Leach's thought and practice.

In 'The Paradox of Political Action,' I emphasized the important

role of artistic and cultural practices. If artistic practices can play

an important role in forming new forms of subjectivity, it is because

artistic practices can reach the emotional domain of human existence

through the use of resources that can evoke emotional responses. The ability to make us see the same thing anew and to recognize new possibilities is where art can possess powerful strength (Mouffe, 2018).

Handicraft pottery, reflecting beauty based on cultural tradition, was an artistic practice with normative significance for Leach, similar to what Mouffe describes. The popularization and everyday use of pottery, harmoniously projecting the beauty and characteristics of both East and West, allows for the discovery of the possibility of harmonious union between East and West.

The 'Tree of Life' motif, Leach's conceptual motif, is an artistic expression that embodies the results of these intellectual considerations. The diverse cultures that branched out from the single root of humanity are represented as the trunk of a tree. The two branches extending to the left and right symbolize the East and West, respectively. The branches are constantly overlapping in an intertwined form, signifying the encounter between each culture. The birds flying among the branches are beings that freely cross between each culture, and can be understood as an idealized image of the artist that Leach sought. In the periphery, the fish motif, which Leach frequently used from early on, can be seen, revealing the decorative characteristics of the East. The technique used is the slipware technique, a traditional British method, attempting to express the integration of Eastern and Western traditions. 4. Shaping East and West through Clay: Bernard Leach's 'Marriage of East and West' _ Kyushu Ceramic Cultural Center

The trend of eclecticism currently emerging in international political science has similarities to Leach's attempt at fusion. The combination and unification of heterogeneous elements was the highest goal of life for Leach. This movement stems from the increasing complexity of the world and the growing attempts to analyze the world more complexly with the maturation of the field of international politics. Acharya and Buzan's (2019) argument for Global IR, attempts to apply complexity theory from the natural sciences to international politics, and the English School's theory of international society all share this common thread. The formation of these academic currents shows that Leach's thought and practice continue to have vitality beyond the art world, within the overall process of human intellectual inquiry. In this sense, the exploration of Leach is significant in that it can provide a perspective for viewing the current world, where the stage of culture is emerging. His image as a pioneer aspiring to the universal human goal of cultural fusion is projected as a self-portrait in the form of a pilgrim in the pottery he created in his later years, and it still seems to breathe around us.

[Figure 1] Bernard Leach, <Tree of Life>, 1923, Slipware, 43cm, V&A Collection

The current trend of eclecticism in the field of international political science bears similarities to Leach's attempt at fusion. The combination and unification of heterogeneous elements was the highest goal of life for Leach. This movement stems from the increasing complexity of the world and the growing attempts to analyze the world more complexly with the maturation of the field of international politics. Acharya and Buzan's (2019) argument for Global IR, attempts to apply complexity theory from the natural sciences to international politics, and the English School's theory of international society all share this common thread. The formation of these academic currents shows that Leach's thought and practice continue to have vitality beyond the art world, within the overall process of human intellectual inquiry. In this sense, the exploration of Leach is significant in that it can provide a perspective for viewing the current world, where the stage of culture is emerging. His image as a pioneer aspiring to the universal human goal of cultural fusion is projected as a self-portrait in the form of a pilgrim in the pottery he created in his later years, and it still seems to breathe around us.

[Figure 2] Bernard Leach, <Pilgrim>, 1968, Stoneware, 33cm, Collection of Bonhams 4. Shaping Eastern and Western Lives Through Clay: Bernard Leach’s ‘Marriage of East and West’_Reference Materials Kyushu Ceramic Cultural Center <Primary Sources>

Yanagi, Soetsu. 1989. The Craftsman’s Way. Edited by Bernard Leach, translated by Daeil Lee. Seoul:

Mijinsa.

Leach, Bernard. 2012. Beyond East and West: Memoirs, Portraits and

Essays. London: Faber and Faber Ltd.

Leach, Bernard. 1951. A Potter’s Book. New York: TRANSATLANTIC

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Yanagi, Soetsu and Leach, Bernard. 2014. Soetsu Yanagi and Bernard

Leach Letters – from 1912 to 1959. Dokyo: Japan Folk Craft

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<Secondary Sources> Monographs

Lee, Seungju. 2012. “Complex Network and East Asian Regionalism.”

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Acharya, Amitav and Buzan, Barry. 2019. The Making of Global

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Mouffe, Chantal. 2018. For a Left Populism. New York: Verso. Said, Edward W. 2003. Orientalism. London: Penguin Classics. Academic Articles

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*This text is an AI translation of an original written in Korean. Some translations or nuances may be inaccurate.

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