The Eve of the Meiji Restoration: Glover and Kido's Encounter

Glover Garden · Kim Dae-young · Korea University

I. Introduction

Thomas Blake Glover, a merchant from Scotland, worked for Jardine Matheson & Co. in Shanghai before moving to Japan. He achieved considerable success, building a large mansion in the Minamiyamate district overlooking Nagasaki Harbor in 1863. He was recognized by the Japanese government for his contributions to industrialization and modernization, becoming the first foreigner to receive the Order of the Rising Sun, Third Class. He passed away in Tokyo in 1911. Glover's mansion, the finest existing example of a wooden Western-style building in Japan, is now preserved and operated by the city of Nagasaki as Glover Garden (Kurobaen) and a memorial hall. In the 19th century, Japan maintained isolationist policies, but after the arrival of Commodore Perry's black ships, Nagasaki was opened, and the Shogunate decided to open the country by signing treaties of amity and commerce with foreign powers. Foreign merchants established settlements in Nagasaki and continued trade, with Glover initially focusing on tea. At that time, the Emperor held no real power in Japan; the Tokugawa Shogunate wielded political authority, but the country was divided into "han," each ruled by a daimyo. Clans in the southwest, such as Choshu and Satsuma, which had previously followed Toyotomi Hideyoshi and were defeated at the Battle of Shimonoseki, were consolidating their power in the periphery and seeking to engage in smuggling with foreign countries. They harbored great dissatisfaction with the Shogunate's monopoly on trade and taxation. Across Japan, discontent with the Shogunate's foreign relations grew, fueled by the slogan "Sonno Joi" (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians), which advocated for enthroning the Emperor and expelling Westerners, thus escalating the flames of conflict.

In this context, Western powers and the Satsuma and Choshu clans clashed in 1862. In September 1862, the Namamugi Incident occurred near Yokohama, where British merchants clashed with a procession of the Satsuma daimyo. Following the Choshu expulsion war, Western powers launched retaliatory attacks. On July 2, 1863, the British fleet attacked Kagoshima with seven ships armed with Armstrong guns, causing significant casualties and property damage. The following year, on August 5, a combined fleet of four nations—Britain, France, the Netherlands, and the United States—appeared off the coast of Choshu and bombarded its coastal batteries and fortresses. These events led Choshu and Satsuma to directly experience the reality of Western military power, prompting changes in their foreign and military policies. Recognizing this trend, Glover entered the arms trade, beginning to sell firearms. He contacted individuals from the Satsuma clan and, in 1864, submitted a proposal recommending industrial modernization, the hiring of foreign experts, and the dispatch of students abroad to acquire Western knowledge. In 1863, Glover assisted five young samurai from the Choshu domain, including Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru, in their clandestine voyage to Britain. In 1865, he also arranged for fifteen young men from the Satsuma domain, including Godai Tomoatsu, to travel to Britain. These individuals would later play crucial roles in Japan's modernization after learning about Western civilization.

In 1865, Choshu implemented Western-style reforms and sought to acquire modern weapons. However, the opposing Shogunate prohibited smuggling with foreign countries, leading to a joint memorandum from the four nations. Facing an imminent threat of the Shogunate's punitive expedition against Choshu, Katsura Kogoro (Kido Takayoshi) consulted Glover about measures to counter the smuggling ban. This led to the proposal of purchasing ships and rifles through the Satsuma clan's name, which eventually paved the way for the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance in 1866. Subsequently, the Boshin War broke out, dismantling the old order and ushering in the Meiji Restoration, laying the foundation for Japan to become an imperial power and dominate East Asia.

Why did Glover sell weapons to Choshu? Sidney DeVere Brown offers three interpretations. First, inspired by political romanticism, Glover saw himself as a political adventurer and sympathized with young Choshu loyalists like Kido Takayoshi and Ito Hirobumi, seeing them as rivals to the Tokugawa Shogunate. Young British interpreters of the time (Ernest Satow, Algernon B. Mitford) also frequented Nagasaki and supported the Emperor, and they may have influenced him. Second, as a Scot, he acted as a vanguard of British imperialism against French imperialism, in contrast to France, which supported the Shogunate. As Gordon Daniels pointed out, Britain only supported reformers' nationalism under the condition of gradual change, as evidenced by Minister Harry Parkes's neutral stance in 1865. However, Glover transcended this line and actively supported Choshu. Third, it is interpreted as an act of a merchant pursuing profit through opportunism and pragmatism, willing to do anything for money. Glover also sold weapons to the Shogunate, demonstrating his willingness to trade with both sides. He met Kido on October 15, 1865, while negotiating with Choshu, who sought to purchase weapons and merchant ships for war preparations.

II. Kido and Glover's Youthful Days (~1865)

Glover arrived in Nagasaki in 1859 from Shanghai at the age of 21 as a clerk for Jardine Matheson & Co. He began his career at Jardine Matheson Holdings Limited, which initially generated significant profits from the opium trade in China. His mentor, Mackenzie, was dispatched to Japan by Jardine after engaging in illegal trade in Hankou, China, indicating that the shift of trade activities from China to Japan was common. Observing Glover's rise as a prominent merchant by selling weapons to the Shogunate later, one can see he surpassed his mentor. Nagasaki, opened on July 4, 1859, was a small city of 40,000 people, with about 250 to 300 foreign residents. Being far from Edo, the Shogunate's political authority did not extend there, and Nagasaki served as a window to the West. Glover best utilized the loosely controlled Nagasaki before the Meiji Restoration, importing cotton textiles from Britain and exporting tea and rice from various domains to China. In 1862, he launched his own company, Glover & Co., which began operations. In September of the same year, the aforementioned Kanagawa/Namamugi Incident occurred, resulting in the murder of British merchant Charles Richardson, drawing British attention to Satsuma and marking a significant event in Anglo-Japanese relations in the 19th century. Consequently, the British government demanded the execution of the responsible parties and a $100,000 indemnity from the Shogun and the Satsuma clan. During this period, Glover, at the young age of 24, began trading with Satsuma, which was in conflict with Britain.

One year after Charles Richardson's death, in July 1863, unable to secure an indemnity and an apology, or the punishment of the perpetrators, Britain deployed its navy to bombard Kagoshima, the center of the Satsuma clan in southern Japan. Although civilian casualties were low due to evacuation orders, the city, composed of paper and wood, burned down, making the Satsuma domain realize the power of modernization and pursue reform. At this time, Glover was selling firearms to Satsuma, other competing domains, and the Shogunate in 1863. Particularly between 1864 and 1867, Glover's trade reached its peak, maintaining close relationships with various political factions within Japan and supplying warships, guns, and silver to factions fighting against the Shogunate. Around September 1864, Glover began selling ships, starting with the "Satsuma," built in his hometown of Aberdeen. In April, he received a request from the Satsuma domain for approximately 3,000 Minie rifles, and subsequently, about 171,934 rifles were imported through Glover & Co. into Nagasaki. Through arms transactions between 1860 and 1867, he became a key broker for the Satsuma domain at the age of 25, later playing a significant role as a broker in the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance.

Kido Takayoshi, also known as Kido Kōin or Katsura Kogoro, was one of the three great figures of the Meiji Restoration. He spent his youth with the goal of revering the Emperor and expelling foreigners. On the evening of June 5, 1864, the Shinsengumi, a Kyoto security force, raided the Ikeda Inn in Kyoto, where about 20 Sonno Joi activists were plotting, leading to the so-called "Ikeda-ya Incident" where they were all captured. Kido Takayoshi, a leader of the Sonno Joi movement, had arrived early to attend the meeting but, finding the attendees absent, stayed at a nearby Tsushima residence drinking tea and thus narrowly escaped death. Kido, who was also called a master of evasion, lived in hiding and only returned to Choshu after Takasugi Shinsaku regained control of the domain's administration. Enraged by this incident, the Sonno Joi faction of Choshu led several thousand troops to Kyoto, under the pretext of appealing to the Emperor about the lord's unjust treatment. This event, where they led troops into Kyoto to regain control of the court and engaged in a gunfight in front of the Imperial Palace, losing to a coalition of Satsuma, Aizu, Echizen, and Kuwana, is known as the Kinmon Incident. As a result, Choshu was branded an enemy of the court and fell into a dire crisis.

To make matters worse, in August, 17 ships of a four-nation allied fleet anchored off the coast of Shimonoseki. A large force of approximately 5,000 troops with 288 cannons launched a bombardment on August 5, silencing the Choshu domain's batteries. Approximately 2,000 troops then landed, occupied the batteries, and engaged in the "Shimonoseki War" with Choshu cavalry. This was a retaliatory attack for the Sonno Joi armed actions of May 10, 1863, when Kusaka Genzui, a leader of the Choshu Sonno Joi faction, mobilized two warships to bombard American merchant ships in the Shimonoseki Strait that were seeking refuge from a storm, and subsequently bombarded French and Dutch warships. In the four-day battle, the Choshu domain suffered 15 casualties and was utterly defeated. The Shimonoseki War concluded with the conditions of guaranteeing the safety of foreign vessels passing through the Kanmon Strait, providing water and fuel, and paying a $3 million indemnity. With most of their warships destroyed, Choshu lost its effective naval power. The interpreter for Choshu during this peace conference was Ito Hirobumi, who had urgently returned from studying in Britain. Ito was one of the "Choshu Five" who studied in Britain with Glover's help in 1863.

The Choshu domain, which originally advocated for expelling foreigners, shifted from "Sonno Joi" to "Sonno Tobaku" (Revere the Emperor, Overthrow the Shogunate) and from isolation to openness following its defeat. From 1864-1865 onwards, Choshu, like Satsuma, adopted a common stance of promoting trade through opening the country, strengthening military power, and confronting the Shogunate. In 1865, Choshu implemented the expansionist policy conceived by Takasugi Shinsaku. On April 26, Kido returned under the name "Katsura Kogoro" and, as a close aide to the domain lord, oversaw both civil and military affairs. While pursuing policies to oppose the Shogunate in alliance with conservative forces, they also implemented industrial policies such as building an ironworks in Yamaguchi and privatizing salt and iron production. They also pursued Western-style reforms in the army. Despite the domain's financial constraints, they sought to acquire warships and enhance their navy, as it was insufficient to counter the Shogunate's naval power in a situation of internal conflict.

Through the experience of defeat at Shimonoseki, the Choshu domain keenly felt the need for superior weapons. However, they could not purchase weapons at the open ports controlled by the Shogunate and turned to smuggling. Nevertheless, Western powers expressed moral support for the Shogunate's legitimate right as the recognized government of Japan to "prohibit trade in non-open ports," and the British government participated in drafting the memorandum requested by the Shogunate. Consul (Chargé d'Affaires) Winchester stated, "It is desirable to issue a public notice warning British subjects against engaging in illegal trade, as it has come to my knowledge that one or two British firms in Nagasaki are actively engaged in trade at Shimonoseki." This is presumed to include Glover & Co. At that time, the Shogunate was the internationally recognized legitimate government of Japan, and foreign consuls were obliged to comply with international law. Britain had not yet sympathized with the cause of the anti-Shogunate domain forces. On June 27, 1865, Harry Parkes arrived in Nagasaki to succeed Rutherford Alcock as the British Minister to Japan. During a dinner with Parkes at the port, Glover attempted to persuade him that Japan's future depended on the daimyo of the southwestern domains, but Parkes remained lukewarm. The next day, Glover sent a letter to Newcastle ordering 35 Armstrong guns and ammunition (worth $183,847) for the "Japanese government," earning a profit of $40,000. However, $30,000 of the profit from the transaction with the Shogunate was prepaid to Satsuma in the same month (June) (Glover later received advance funds from Jardine Matheson & Co. for "investment in Japan" to be used by Satsuma in Britain). Against this backdrop, Kido approached Glover.

III. Kido and Glover's First Meeting (1865)

In 1865, Choshu samurai (Ito and Inoue) with whom Glover was acquainted were taking refuge at the Satsuma residence before coming to Nagasaki. When they visited to purchase weapons and steamships, they disguised themselves as Satsuma samurai. At this time, Glover was reportedly hiding Choshu rebel leaders like Aoki and Kido in his home. Some Japanese officials reported this to the British Consulate, and Glover was notified that he would be expelled from Nagasaki if such actions continued. However, Glover felt an affinity for Kido, who "sought to lead Japan towards openness and Western civilization." When Kido, pursued by pro-Shogunate samurai, sought help, Glover took him aboard his ship and sailed away, claiming the ship needed repairs when questioned. At the time, Glover was conducting business with the Shogunate, making a $40,000 profit by selling Armstrong guns and artillery, but he showed a friendly gesture by lending $30,000 to Satsuma.

Following correspondence, Glover intended to supply firearms directly from Nagasaki. On October 15, 1865, accompanied by Ito Hirobumi, he went to Shimonoseki and met Kido in person for the first time. When Kido asked Glover for a solution to the smuggling ban, Glover reportedly replied, "The Shogunate seems to have made a very strong request to Britain on this matter, and its true intention is ultimately to hinder the Choshu domain. Regardless, the Shogunate is the party with whom treaties have been concluded, so there is nothing that can be done. Therefore, the Choshu domain has completely lost its means of acquiring weapons. I deeply regret this, but there is nothing that can be done." He then added, "If you purchase them in Shanghai using the Choshu domain's ships, there will be no problem. If you do not have a ship, I will cooperate by any means necessary for one or two people to smuggle themselves to Shanghai, purchase a steamship, and secretly load rifles onto it."

In this regard, in the intercalary fifth month of the lunar calendar, Sakamoto Ryoma and Nakaoka Shintaro visited Shimonoseki one after another and consulted with two individuals (Inoue Monta and Ito Shunsuke), devising a plan for the Choshu domain to purchase steamships under the name of the Satsuma domain. The omission of rifles in the discussion about steamships was because Aoki Kunpei had already been dispatched to Nagasaki to purchase 1,000 rifles and was unable to complete his mission due to interference from Shogunate officials. Ryoma, who operated the Kameyama Shokai trading company in Nagasaki, entrusted this task to the prominent merchant Glover. It is unlikely that Glover would have undertaken such a risky transaction with Choshu, an enemy of the court, or with Ryoma, a mere ronin. However, he accepted it because it was under the name of Satsuma, with whom he had previously conducted large arms purchases. After preparations and negotiations, the Choshu domain leaders dispatched a weapons procurement team led by Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru to Nagasaki in July, where they stayed at the Satsuma domain's residence. Their role was to negotiate favorably with Glover. As mentioned earlier, they were members of the "Choshu Five" who had secretly traveled to Britain with Glover's assistance in 1863. Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru, through Ryoma Sakamoto's mediation and in consultation with Komatsu Tatewaki, agreed to purchase 3,000 old-style Gewehr rifles and 4,300 modern Minie rifles under the name of the Satsuma domain for approximately 92,400 taels. The Gewehr rifle, adopted by most domains including the Shogunate at the time, was a traditional muzzle-loading rifle where the bullet was inserted from the muzzle and rammed down with a rod. In the 1850s, rifle manufacturing technology advanced dramatically, leading to the widespread adoption of the Minie rifle, which had a similar loading mechanism to modern rifles. It played a decisive role in the Crimean War, where the British army used it to defeat the Russian army. It was easier to operate, had a faster firing rate, and higher accuracy, making it equivalent to ten Gewehr rifles. While the effective range of the Gewehr rifle (the main weapon of the Shogunate army) was only 100 meters, the Minie rifle had a range of 300 meters. Subsequently, Ito, disguised as a Satsuma samurai, transported large quantities of firearms and artillery to the Choshu domain's Mitajiri port via a Satsuma domain steamship, and then to Shimonoseki. He also gathered information while staying in Nagasaki, meeting with French naval captains and Glover, and reporting to Kido.

Through this arms transaction, Choshu's trust in Satsuma was restored. Simultaneously, the Satsuma clan members who supported Ryoma entrusted him with a ship, intending to utilize the navigation knowledge he acquired under Katsu Rintaro. For this purpose, they granted him an independent position as the head of the organization, naming it "Kameyama Shokai" (company), which was later renamed "Kaientai" (Maritime Support Force). This name, reminiscent of a small trading company, allowed them to engage in trade with Western countries in port cities under Shogunate control while concealing their support from the Satsuma domain. In Nagasaki, Ryoma took charge of most negotiations with foreign merchants, and the company began by supporting the Choshu domain's acquisition of foreign weapons, which was under a Shogunate blockade. Choshu domain representatives dispatched to Nagasaki could not trade with foreign merchants due to strict surveillance, but Ryoma, with the approval of Saigo Takamori, could serve as an alternative.

The 4,300 Minie rifles imported under the name of the Satsuma domain arrived in the Choshu domain in August, and the purchase of a steamship also moved toward realization. Mori Takachika, the lord of the Choshu domain, sent a letter to Hisamitsu, the father of the Satsuma lord, stating that the conflict with the Satsuma domain was "resolved, misunderstandings cleared," and officially requested the purchase of a warship. After much difficulty, on December 4, 1865 (October of Keio 1), the Choshu domain, through the mediation of Satsuma and Thomas Glover, purchased the steam warship "Icho Maru/Ocho Maru" (the Union, known as "Sakurajima Maru" in Satsuma: 70 horsepower, 205 tons) for 37,500 taels. With Satsuma's military support, the two domains concluded a secret anti-Shogunate alliance. To prevent Choshu from becoming overly reliant on Satsuma and losing its influence, Ryoma arranged in October of the same year for Choshu's grain to be used as military provisions for the Satsuma domain. Kagoshima, where Satsuma was located, was a region with a rice shortage, and Saigo was concerned about securing provisions for the Satsuma troops stationed in Kyoto. With Kido's acceptance of Ryoma's proposal, trade activities between Satsuma and Choshu began in the autumn of 1865. The Union, purchased from Thomas Glover, participated in naval battles in the Shimonoseki Strait before fully coming under Choshu domain control, being renamed "Ocho Maru" and becoming part of the Choshu domain navy. This was a significant achievement in the cooperation with Satsuma, but a loss for Ryoma's company. Separately, the schooner "Wild Wave," purchased through the Satsuma domain, was the second vessel acquired by the company after the Union. It set sail on its maiden voyage to Kagoshima with the Union, but a storm engulfed the two ships, and the schooner, lacking a steam engine, sank. Among the twelve companions lost in the storm off Shioyasaki was Ikura Kurata, whom Ryoma cherished like a younger brother.

IV. The Satsuma-Choshu Alliance and Arms Trade (1866-1867)

On March 7, 1866, Kido, representing Choshu Domain, Saigo Takamori of Satsuma, and Ryoma Sakamoto as mediator, forged the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance. In June, the Shogunate's forces attacked Choshu (the second punitive expedition against Choshu by the Shogunate), but were repulsed. Although the Shogunate's forces, mobilized from various domains, numbered approximately 100,000, about ten times the strength of Choshu Domain, they were defeated by Choshu's forces, who were trained in European tactics and equipped with superior firearms from Glover. The Satsuma army, possessing the most formidable military strength, did not join the Shogunate's forces as per the secret Satsuma-Choshu agreement. The decisive factor in the victory was the night attack on the Shogunate's fleet led by warships purchased by Takasugi Shinsaku. The steamship Union, also provided by Glover, participated in the naval battle on July 28. Early in this war, Ito was involved in the battle in the Ishikawa region when he received orders from the domain government to go to China and purchase warships. Ito went to Nagasaki, and with the help of the British merchant Glover, he crossed over to Shanghai, contracted to purchase two warships, and returned at the end of August. The warships arrived in October after the war had ended, but were subsequently used effectively for troop transport and other purposes.

Britain, initially indifferent to Satsuma, began to shift its stance. Shimazu, the head of the Shimazu family, invited the British Minister Parks to Kagoshima through Glover. At a dinner banquet, Parks and Glover implicitly signaled that the British government would no longer support the Shogunate and would not take sides in Japan's civil war. Through its experiences in the wars with Satsuma and Shimonoseki, Britain came to understand the demands for political and trade participation from various domains, including Satsuma and Choshu. Notably, the young secretary at the British Legation, Ernest Satow, and Nagasaki Consul Gower were instrumental in approaching Satsuma and Choshu. As recorded in Satow's memoir, 'A Diplomat In Japan,' he maintained close contact with prominent daimyo and samurai in the southwestern domains, such as Date Munenari and Saigo Takamori, and published 'A Treatise on British Policy,' documenting the political transformation in Japan that included the daimyo factions; Minister Parks tacitly approved this. However, during this period, regarding the Shogunate's diplomacy from treaty ratification to the conclusion of the revised treaties around 1866, Parks commented, "The Shogun is acting sincerely towards us. We can achieve much more through the Shogun than through the daimyo." He also reported to the Foreign Office in his home country, having discerned the inevitable jealousy and discord among the daimyo. He also criticized the Satsuma domain for frequently obstructing treaty ratification and using diplomatic issues to attack the Shogun.

Following the second punitive expedition against Choshu in 1866, the demand for Western-style firearms surged. By 1867, as domestic tensions in Japan escalated and war loomed, firearms became Japan's most crucial import. This is evident from official British records.

Source: British Foreign Office, Nagasaki Consulate, Japan, Records, 1859-1870; Shinya Sugiyama, “Thomas B. Glover: A British Merchant in Japan, 1861-70,” Business History 26, no. 2 (1984):120

Trade reports from the British Consulate indicate that over 170,000 firearms were imported into Nagasaki alone between 1865 and 1868, valued at $24 million, equivalent to approximately £500,000.

Between 1866 and 1867, the majority (85 percent) of official arms trade in Nagasaki was conducted through British or Dutch/German merchants. Contract records show the transaction of 33,875 small firearms, accounting for approximately 40 percent of Nagasaki's imports. 3. Glover and Kido's Meeting on the Eve of the Meiji Restoration_Glover Garden

Small Arms Imports per Port, 1863-1869 Year Yokohama Nagasaki Kobe Total 1863 5,817 5,817 1864 11,568 11,568 1865 56,843 25,850 82,693 1866 53,000 (est.) 21,620 74,620 1867 102,333 65,367 167,700 1868 106,036 36,514 142,550 1869 58,613 19,163 7,120 84,896 Total 394,210 168,514 7,120 569,844

Source: Hoya Toru, Boshin senso [The Boshin War] (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2007), p.99.

These figures can be considered a good documentation of international trade at the time. Among these, Glover ranked first and Kniffler second, with the top five merchant families accounting for 72 percent of the total firearms trade, indicating a high market share. When categorized by nationality, Glover and British merchants led with 53 percent, while German merchants (Prussia and Hamburg) including Kniffler, and Dutch merchants accounted for 32 percent. The Portuguese merchant family Loureiro ranked fifth, selling 1,780 small firearms, a figure exceeding the combined trade volume of American merchants. The 'French' merchant, William F. Gaymans, claimed to be a Swiss national operating under French protection, but was in fact of Dutch origin and died in Germany. Overall, over 95 percent of the small firearms flowing into southwestern Japan were the result of activities by European merchants.

Merchant Nationality 1866 (1/2) 1867 Total 1 Glover British 685 12,140 12,825 2 Kniffler German 3,100 1,901 5,001 3 Alt British 250 2,829 3,079 4 Hughes British 1,810 1,810 5 Loureiro Portuguese 1,780 1,780 6 Lehmann German 926 526 1,452 7 Bauduin Dutch 1,000 300 1,300 8 Gaymans French 1,120 1,120 9 French USA 500 366 866 10 Bohlens German 268 500 768 3. The Eve of the Meiji Restoration: Glover and Kido's Encounter_Glover Garden

IV. The Meiji Restoration and Glover's Decline (1868)

Between 1864 and 1867, Glover sold 20 ships in Nagasaki alone, generating a profit of $1.17 million. However, in the first year of Meiji (1868), the Shogun ceded power to the Emperor, ending the state of war. Consequently, opportunities to profit from warships and firearms significantly diminished, and Glover's business began to decline. Nevertheless, the construction of the Japanese government's first new warships, the Ho Sho Maru and Jho Sho Maru (Ryojomaru), in 1868 marked the end of the 1860s. He operated Japan's first modern coal mine but went bankrupt in 1870 before generating profits, forcing him to sell the ownership at a low price and lose Glover & Co. During this period, he also established another company that would later develop into Mitsubishi and started the Japanese beer business, which would grow into Kirin Brewery Co., Ltd.

During the confrontation between the Shogunate and the new government forces at the end of the Bakufu period, the new government army of 5,000 repelled the Bakufu army of 15,000 at the Battle of Toba-Fushimi. This victory, overcoming the three-fold difference in personnel, was achieved through precise firing using British-imported gunpowder used in conjunction with cannons. The 16,015 Spencer rifles, American-made weapons superior to British ones, possessed by the Satsuma unit at the time were procured by Glover. The Spencer rifle is a lever-action rifle that allows for rapid semi-automatic firing by tilting the lever connected to the trigger guard forward to eject the spent casing and return it to position for reloading. Subsequently, the Imperial Court officially declared the Bakufu an enemy, and most domains in western Japan surrendered to the new government. With the capture of Edo and the defeat of the resistance factions, the feudal order dominated by daimyo was dismantled, and a modern nation-state was established, bringing the Boshin War to a victorious conclusion for the new government forces.

Kido kept a diary every day from April 1868, the first year of Meiji, until his death in May 1877. His diary, "The Diary of Kido Takayoshi," has been recognized as an important historical source for early Meiji period research, with an English translation published by the University of Tokyo Press. On May 12, 1868, Kido met Glover in Osaka while going to meet Emperor Meiji. In his diary, he wrote that they reminisced about the past three years. Despite not having met for some time, they displayed great intimacy. At their parting, Glover presented Kido with a pistol. This can be seen as a fitting gesture from someone who significantly contributed to the Choshu army's advantage over the Shogunate forces in 1866. A few days later, the two met again. On June 1, they briefly discussed borrowing a warship from Glover & Co. to facilitate the return of Choshu clan descendants.

Kido Takayoshi, or Kido Kōin, was undoubtedly a passionate figure dedicated to the Emperor and the nation, as evident throughout his diary. His entry on August 6, 1868, states that the success of the Meiji Restoration was achieved through the sacrifices of many loyal and righteous individuals, and that just as dozens of his friends had martyred themselves for the empire, he too must dedicate his life. He wrote that the living owe a debt to the dead, and their souls, wandering in the netherworld, would find peace once their objectives were achieved. Amidst this, he lamented that rumors circulated in Yamaguchi at the beginning of the year suggesting he had neglected his homeland, Choshu, by focusing solely on imperial government affairs and had not been loyal to his lord, the daimyo. He explained that while he had indeed focused primarily on central government matters, it was to repay the sacrifices of fallen samurai, and he emphasized his loyalty to the daimyo through these actions. He expressed deep sorrow for not being able to resolve the misunderstandings with his hometownspeople. On August 12, 1868, he recorded his profound emotions upon witnessing that only two or three out of ten activists who had initiated the Sonno Joi movement had survived, and that their objectives had been achieved.

V. Conclusion

Glover was not the only Western merchant involved in the arms trade. However, riding the tide of the times, he interacted with passionate young intellectuals from other countries of his generation, forging relationships that fluctuated between profit and loss. Identifying with them, he immersed himself in his role, calling himself the greatest traitor to the Tokugawa Shogunate in private conversations, and became a catalyst for the formation of the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance, which overturned Japan through the Meiji Restoration. Here, he developed a friendship with Kido Takayoshi of Choshu. It is speculated that witnessing events such as the Namamugi Incident, the Satsuma-British War, the Expulsionist War, and the Shimonoseki War, coupled with their respective circumstances leading to a shared animosity towards the Shogunate, helped forge their bond.

Regarding the arms negotiations, the following considerations can be made. Glover faced significant risks due to the agreement between Britain and the Shogunate, making smuggling a high-risk endeavor, and profit was a crucial factor. Kido, facing the Shogunate's punitive expedition against Choshu, was undoubtedly desperate for weapons as military reforms were underway, making it a matter of life and death. In this situation, for the transaction to proceed as safely as possible, it had to be conducted through Satsuma in a disguised manner. This made Glover, who already had a deep relationship with Satsuma, essential to Kido. Simultaneously, from Glover's perspective as a merchant seeking to expand his trade network through the cooperation of Choshu and Satsuma, it was not entirely disadvantageous. Given Glover's tendency to venture into various business areas and constantly explore new frontiers, and his subsequent downfall due to an inability to focus on one business after the Meiji Restoration, it is highly probable that Glover found the clandestine trade with Choshu extremely intriguing.

As examined, Kido faced numerous challenges before meeting Glover, and after the meeting, he communicated with various actors and coordinated their interests to successfully conclude the arms negotiations. As a result, thanks to Glover's mediation in arms transactions, the Choshu domain successfully established a unified military system based on universal conscription through its military and political reforms in 1865, proving its combat effectiveness by defeating the Shogunate army. While individual efforts and international trade intertwined to produce these results, the Shogunate, conversely, despite having advantages such as abundant capital and resources, and even official relations with Western powers, ultimately lost hegemony over the Japanese archipelago to Satsuma and Choshu. Even in the 19th century, the network of human relationships was so complexly intertwined. Reflecting on the international order of the 21st century, deepened by the information revolution and globalization, this era holds significant implications for us today. Bibliography Primary Sources The Diary of Kido Takayoshi. Vol.1: 1868-1871, Translated by Sidney

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