Kim San's Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries: Ideals and Limitations

Memorial Hall of the War of Chinese People's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression · Son Sang-yong · Sungkyunkwan University

Introduction

“My life was a series of failures. So was the history of our nation. I have won victory over myself in one thing only. But that one victory is enough to make me confident of the future. Fortunately, the tragedies and failures I have experienced have not destroyed me but have made me stronger. I have almost no illusions left. But I have not lost faith in people and in the ability of man to create history.” (Nym Wales, 1984, 464) Who is the protagonist who left these words? What kind of life did he live that, despite his life and his nation's history being a series of failures, he could say he achieved victory in a fierce battle with himself? That protagonist is none other than Gam San, whom we intended to meet on the second day of Sarangbang's 10th expedition. After enjoying a hearty lunch at a restaurant currently operating with the Chinese People's Commune as its motif, we headed to the Memorial Hall of the War of Chinese People's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, located in Wanping City (宛平城) in the Xicheng District (城西) of Beijing, to meet Kim San. The War Memorial Hall was built in 1987 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression and preserves records of the war from the September 18th Incident in 1931 to 1945 (Park Kyung-suk, 2009, 169).

However, among the approximately 5,000 historical materials related to the Sino-Japanese War, the whereabouts of the protagonist, Kim San, could not be found even after searching thoroughly. In fact, besides Kim San, there were quite a few revolutionaries who fought for the liberation of their homeland within the Chinese Communist Party in the past, but most of them disappeared into history without even a record. Fortunately, Kim San's activities are preserved and passed down through the novel "Arirang" by Nym Wales. Before delving into Kim San's life, we would like to introduce the meeting between Kim San and Nym Wales. Their encounter began in 1937 at the Lu Xun Library in Yan'an (Nym Wales, 1984, 40). Subsequently, Nym Wales intensively interviewed Kim San for about three months, recording his life and activities. For reference, Nym Wales was the wife of Edgar Snow, known as a 'friend of the Chinese people,' and was a bold woman who told her husband, 'I came to China wanting to become the Empress of Asia.' So, why did she pay attention to a young man who borrowed an unusually large number of English books from a small library in Yan'an and always maintained a cautious demeanor? Nym Wales first heard about 'Joseon,' a country whose name she had never even heard, from Kim San, became deeply fascinated by his life, and wrote a novel weaving together his life story. Therefore, this expedition report aims to reconstruct Kim San's life, centered around "Arirang," co-authored by Kim San and Nym Wales, alongside vivid records of the Sino-Japanese War at the Memorial Hall of the War of Chinese People's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression. Before proceeding to reconstruct Kim San's life, a brief introduction to his life will be provided. Kim San's real name was Jang Ji-rak (張志樂), born in 1905 in Yongcheon, North Pyongan Province. Kim San spent his teenage years in Joseon, directly experiencing the bitter pain of Japanese colonial rule. Above all, after witnessing the frustration of the March 1st Movement in 1919, Kim San left his homeland at the age of 16 to study in Japan. After a short period of study in Japan, lasting just over a year, Kim San moved to China, participated in the Chinese Revolution, and led the anti-Japanese independence movement for the liberation of his homeland. Thus, Kim San lived a life of a fiery revolutionary on the stage of East Asia amidst the most tragic history of Joseon. Previous studies on Kim San have focused on the scenes of the anti-Japanese independence movement, where he fought with indomitable will during the most desperate and dark period of Japanese colonial rule. However, this report aims to explore Kim San's lifelong beliefs and practices on the stage of East Asia, which we will term the 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries.'

The Mystery Surrounding Kim San

Kim San was secretly executed by the Chinese Communist Party, to which he had dedicated his life, in 1938. However, in 1983, the Chinese Communist Party reinstated his party membership. In 1992, the North Korean government recorded Kim San as a figure in the history of the anti-Japanese struggle. In 2005, the South Korean government awarded him a medal and the Order of Merit for National Foundation in commemoration of national liberation. As such, many questions seem to remain surrounding Kim San's life and death. First, we will introduce two representative questions regarding Kim San's life.

First, the debate over Kim San's representativeness as a Korean who was active within the Chinese Communist Party. In other words, can Kim San be considered a revolutionary who represents the numerous Koreans who participated in the Chinese Revolution in the 1920s and 1930s? According to Chinese historical records, Kim San rose to the positions of Secretary of the Beijing Communist Party and member of the North China Bureau Committee within the party.

He also taught Japanese economics, politics, and physics at the Military and Political University. Based solely on Kim San's resume, it might seem natural for Kim Seong-suk, a well-known anti-Japanese independence activist, to praise Kim San's status and activities (Kim Hak-jun, 2005). However, there are those who question Kim San's representativeness. A prominent figure is Moon Jeong-il, who engaged in armed anti-Japanese struggle within the Korean Volunteer Corps during the Sino-Japanese War and later held a high-ranking position in the Communist Party after liberation. Moon Jeong-il strongly criticized, stating, 'It is problematic to elevate such a figure as representative of Korean revolutionaries in China' (Mizuno Naoki, 1993, 147). Thus, the differing evaluations of Kim San's position and activities within the Chinese Communist Party are still ongoing. Second, the question surrounding Kim San's death. Conflicting interpretations exist regarding Kim San's death: the 'death by illness theory' advocated by Nym Wales, author of "Arirang," and the 'purged theory' advocated by Lee Hoe-seong and Mizuno Naoki, authors of "After Arirang." The latter claims that Kim San was purged after being accused of being a 'Trotskyist' and a 'Japanese spy,' which has been accepted as the established theory, confirmed by internal documents of the Chinese Communist Party and the third volume of "Biographies of Korean Revolutionary Martyrs" published in China. In fact, the Organization Department of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party put an end to the controversy surrounding Kim San's death by restoring his honor and party membership.

Nevertheless, questions remain regarding Kim San's representativeness as a Korean revolutionary within the Chinese Communist Party and the accusations of being a 'Trotskyist' or 'Japanese spy' that led to his death. What led to these infamies surrounding Kim San's death? This report will go beyond the inspiration derived from Kim San's life to academically name his thoughts on revolution as the 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries' and explain its formation process, practice, and limitations through his life. Through this, we may find answers to the controversies surrounding Kim San's life. Now, let us proceed to meet the protagonist of today, Kim San.

Formation Process of Kim San's Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries

Kim San's theory of revolution is set in East Asia and was complexly formed through his life experiences. Specifically, Kim San spent his childhood in Joseon, realizing the impossibility of domestic liberation movements under brutal Japanese rule, and dreamed of an independence movement abroad, triggered by the failure of the March 1st Movement in 1919. After leaving Joseon, Kim San had a brief study abroad in Japan for just over a year before actively participating in the Chinese Revolution. Through this series of experiences, Kim San formed the 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries' based on international socialism. That is, Kim San firmly believed that a socialist revolution in Japan would later extend to Joseon and China, leading to Joseon's liberation, based on the solidarity between the working classes of Joseon, China, and Japan, and he practiced this throughout his life. In other words, his idea was to participate in the Chinese Revolution and foster the maturation of revolutionary capabilities in China until Joseon's revolutionary capabilities matured, and then, starting with the Sino-Japanese War, to promote the struggle for national liberation by enhancing Joseon's revolutionary capabilities. We will now trace Kim San's footsteps in the 1920s and 1930s to understand how his theory of revolution was formed.

In 1921, Kim San embarked on a brief study abroad in Japan at the age of 16. Despite the short duration, he learned rudimentary socialism in the atmosphere of Tokyo, the mecca of East Asian knowledge at the time, and developed a vague admiration for the Japanese Communist Party. This means Kim San harbored a dual perception, coexisting with anger towards Japanese imperialism and affection for Japanese socialist forces. Kim San expressed this as follows:

“In Japan, the revolutionary class began to develop in 1919. The Japanese

Communist Party members are honest, strong, and unafraid of sacrifice. They

passionately dedicate themselves to their cause. I truly like the Japanese

people I know well. Unlike the Chinese, the Japanese do not discriminate

against Koreans or other foreign comrades and truly possess an international spirit (Nym Wales, 1997, 114).”

In late 1921, Kim San concluded his studies in Japan and moved to mainland China, where he began his path as a communist. Of course, after passing through the Shinheung Military Academy and briefly operating in Shanghai, meeting figures like Lee Dong-hwi and An Chang-ho, and joining the义烈团 (Uiyeoldan), Kim San briefly walked the path of an anarchist (Son Yeom-hong, 2017, 308). However, upon moving to Beijing, he met Kim Chung-chang, began to earnestly study Marxism-Leninism, and became a full-fledged Korean communist participating in the Chinese Revolution (Son Yeom-hong, 2008). In 1927, Kim San led Koreans in participating and playing an active role in the Guangzhou Uprising, earning immense trust from Chinese Communist Party members (Collection of Historical Materials on the History of the Communist Party of China, CPC Party History Publishing House, 1988). In addition to participating in the Chinese Revolution in the 1920s, Kim San also worked to strengthen Joseon's revolutionary capabilities. Notably, in 1925, Kim San joined and was active in the Beijing Social Science Research Society, and in 1927, he joined the Uiyeoldan and the Korean Revolutionary Comrades Association, working for the independence of his homeland from the distant land of China (Mizuno Naoki, 1993, 93).

Kim San's activities in the 1930s must be examined in two parts, divided by the Sino-Japanese War, because Kim San's 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries' shifted its focus from enhancing China's revolutionary capabilities to 'enhancing Joseon's revolutionary capabilities' starting with the Sino-Japanese War. First, in the first half of the 1930s, Kim San experienced two of the most significant events in his life. First, Kim San was arrested twice and transferred to the Japanese police. In November 1930, Kim San was arrested by Kuomintang police while preparing for a rally commemorating the third anniversary of the Guangzhou armed uprising and was handed over to the Japanese police. Despite enduring harsh torture and trial by the Japanese police, he was released due to 'insufficient evidence.' Later, in April 1933, Kim San was arrested a second time, but because there was no decisive evidence of him being a Communist Party member, the Japanese authorities released him. Through these two imprisonments, Kim San's health and mental state deteriorated significantly. To make matters worse, his Chinese Communist Party colleagues, seeing that Kim San was released twice despite being arrested by the Japanese, began to suspect him of being a 'Japanese spy.' Second, the conflict between Kim San and Han Wi-geon, another Korean revolutionary within the Chinese Communist Party, intensified. Behind the slander against Kim San was Han Wi-geon. Han Wi-geon harbored resentment towards Kim San because Kim San refused a request related to his party membership when Kim San served as secretary of the Beijing Party Organization Committee. While this could be dismissed as a personal conflict, according to Kim Seong-suk's "Recollections of Anti-Japanese Struggles by Revolutionaries," Han Wi-geon's status was very high, as indicated by the phrase 'Han Wi-geon was well-known within the Chinese Communist Party, and his theories, published under the pseudonym Cheolbu, led to the term 'Cheolbu line' spreading within the Chinese Communist Party.' His influence was so significant that it could affect Kim San's position within the Chinese Communist Party (Han Sang-do, 2004, 184). Kim San's own perception, described below, proves this.

“He was admitted to the Party in April 1931, recommended by another Korean.

Now that I have returned, he thought that if I were to regain a responsible position,

he would not be able to work with me or with the Party. Therefore, he

decided to dedicate himself to the struggle against his political and personal enemy, risking his life. Mr. Han had fought with me before and mobilized several Korean nationalists who hated me, and even some Communist Party members,

believed that I was a suspicious person. I wrote a self-confession, and

he insinuated that I was forced to make secret contact with the Japanese as a spy.”

Through these two incidents, Kim San experienced the most difficult period of his life, even attempting suicide. At the same time, Kim San began to feel skeptical about his activities within the Chinese Communist Party, and his negativity and disillusionment with the Chinese Communist Party grew in comparison to Japan, which possessed modern and high-level communist capabilities. Above all, the fact that he could not overcome the national limitations as a Korean within the Chinese Communist Party further amplified his sense of alienation.

Ideals and Limitations of Kim San's Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries

Kim San's ideals for the 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries' and Joseon's independence are fully reflected in the "Program of Action for the United Front of the Korean People." Prior to drafting the "Program of Action for the United Front of the Korean People," Kim San's activities involved heading to Shanghai to rally revolutionary forces in Joseon as the Sino-Japanese War loomed, aiming to establish an organization for Joseon's independence movement. Furthermore, when asked if he desired the restoration of his party membership in the Chinese Communist Party for Joseon's independence movement, Kim San refused, expressing his intention to focus on Joseon's revolutionary movement. Consequently, in 1936, Kim San, along with Kim Seong-suk and Park Geon-ung, centered in Shanghai, established the Joseon National Liberation Alliance to achieve national liberation, regardless of ideology, including communists, nationalists, and anarchists (Mizuno Naoki, 1993, 124). In addition, Kim San sought to build a united front for the Korean people and proactively drafted the "Program of Action for the United Front of the Korean People" in July 1936. Excerpts from the "Program of Action for the United Front of the Korean People," personally written by Kim San, offer insight into his ideology.

Article 1: In order to successfully carry out the struggle for the liberation of the entire nation, all Koreans who agree with the principle of Korean independence

shall unite, regardless of social class, party affiliation, political or religious

creed, and regardless of any organization or individual, and regardless of age or gender.

Article 11: Oppose Japan's expansion into the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and its invasion of China, and conclude an alliance with the Chinese people's anti-Japanese national front and the Co-Prosperity Sphere's anti-invasion line.

Article 13: To form a vast anti-invasion peace front in the East, becoming the central force of all peoples in the East directly oppressed by Japanese imperialism,

form a great united front among the peoples of China, the Soviet Union, Japan, and Joseon.

In Article 3, Kim San emphasizes that all forces must unite for Korean independence, even if class struggle is suspended. Articles 11, 12, 13, and 14 reflect his thinking that emphasizes solidarity among classes on the stage of East Asia. Specifically, Article 12 advocates for firm support and cooperation with the anti-fasc people's front within Japan, suggesting Kim San's trust in the Japanese working class and the solidarity between the Korean and Japanese working classes, which is one pillar of the 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries.' Article 13 argues for the formation of a common front by the working classes of China, Joseon, and Japan against Japanese imperialism. Through this, we can see that Kim San, as a revolutionary from a colonized Joseon, although he participated in the Chinese Revolution, followed a different path from orthodox communism, and that communist ideology and the Chinese Revolution were not ultimate goals for Kim San but rather ideological methodologies for the independence of Joseon.

However, contrary to what Kim San predicted with his 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries,' the domino effect of revolution did not occur in Japan, and despite the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Joseon's independence remained distant. Therefore, a precise analysis of the logical misjudgments inherent in Kim San's theory of revolution is necessary. Through this, the mystery surrounding Kim San's death may also be solved. First, Kim San predicted that with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, a Great Depression would occur in Japan, leading to a revolution led by socialist forces. As a basis for this, Kim San analyzed that from September 18, 1931, onwards, Japan's economy became severely dependent on the outside world and lost its balance. Furthermore, from an international systemic perspective, he analyzed that major powers would be unable to take any action against Japan's invasion of China, as European countries were tied up in Spain and the Soviet Union was experiencing internal conflicts. However, contrary to Kim San's expectations, the Japanese socialist forces, which were supposed to be the agents of revolution, disappeared. Specifically, the Japanese Labor Party was dissolved by the government in 1924 and operated as an underground party again in 1926, but due to the Peace Preservation Law in Japan in 1925 and the Manchurian Incident in 1931, repression intensified, and it eventually disappeared (Jeong Hye-seon, 1995, 143). Therefore, Kim San's idea that if there was a strategic 'revolutionary base' in Japan for the Joseon revolution and liberation, and if the first socialist revolution occurred in Japan, it would serve as a starting point for Joseon to participate in armed struggle and pursue national liberation, was flawed from the outset.

Second, Kim San's 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries' diverged from the Comintern, which led the communist movement at the time, as well as from the Chinese Communist Party, within which Kim San was active. The major Comintern meetings held during Kim San's active period were the 5th Comintern Congress in 1924, the 6th Comintern Congress in 1928, and the 7th Comintern Congress in 1935. The main issue of the Comintern in the 1920s was how to maintain independent revolutionary capabilities for socialist revolution, and accordingly, the 5th Congress regarded Trotskyism as a dangerous ideological deviation and promoted Leninism. Furthermore, at the 6th Congress, the Soviet Communist Party changed its course from the existing international socialist line to Stalinism, predicted the collapse of capitalism, and ordered communist forces to maintain their independence and prepare for imperialist war. Simultaneously, through the 'December Theses,' it instructed Korean revolutionaries to be incorporated into the Chinese Communist Party (Son Yeom-hong, 2017, 297). Kim San's 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries' was formed and constrained by its close relationship with the Comintern's line. In "Arirang," Kim San stated his support for the 5th Comintern Congress and his faithful implementation of the 6th Comintern Congress. In fact, after the Guangzhou Uprising, believing that Joseon lacked revolutionary capabilities, Kim San served as Secretary of the Beijing Communist Party and a member of the North China Bureau Committee. However, from 1935 onwards, Kim San's 'Theory of Revolution in Three East Asian Countries' began to diverge from the lines of the Comintern and the Chinese Communist Party. Kim San judged that the Sino-Japanese War was imminent and that Joseon's revolutionary capabilities had been sufficiently cultivated, and he devoted all his energy to fostering Joseon's independent revolutionary capabilities. Kim San's perception that the Korean Communist Party should unite with the Chinese Communist Party as a single force to achieve independence is clearly shown below.

“We can no longer afford to lose ourselves like salt dissolved in water. We must join China not as displaced individuals but as a force joining another power. As Japanese imperialism is moving at a very rapid pace, we must quickly focus our energies on building and preparing the Korean movement for future action (Nym Wales

Wales 1997, 459). In this situation, Kim San expressed anger at the Chinese Communist Party's line and submitted an opinion paper demanding a change in the party's line. He even preached his dangerous ideology at the Anti-Japanese Military and Political University, stating that the Great Depression and socialist revolution would occur first in Japan. In light of the Chinese Communist Party's line based on 'socialism in one country,' his thoughts on Japan, a pillar of Kim San's Three-Nation Revolution Theory of East Asia, were so dangerous that Kim San was sufficiently stigmatized as a 'Trotskyist' or 'Japanese spy'.

Conclusion

At the beginning and end of the Museum of the War of Chinese People's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, a colossal statue of the Chinese army with resolute expressions greeted us. Overwhelmed by the solemn expression and the weight of the era's pain and scars, the mystery surrounding Kim San gradually unfolded for me. In the Chinese Revolution, Mao Zedong is remembered as an icon of revolution to this day. However, not many remember Kim San. Above all, the Three-Nation Revolution Theory of East Asia, which was traced in this field trip report, starkly reveals that Kim San's judgment of the prevailing conditions in East Asia at the time was a complete miscalculation. His trust in Japanese socialist forces and the suspicious glances he received within the Chinese Communist Party ultimately provided the pretext for Kim San to be branded a 'Trotskyist' or 'Japanese spy' and executed. So, why should we remember Kim San at the Museum of the War of Chinese People's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression?

Conversely, I felt the heavy atmosphere of the War Memorial of Korea and recalled the chronicles of a young man who had lost his homeland, living in China in the 1930s, the era in which Kim San lived. Kim San, at a young age, studied abroad in Japan alone before going to China to participate in the Chinese Revolution. However, the goal of liberating his homeland never disappeared from Kim San's heart. Even when he was arrested by the Japanese police, subjected to water torture, and his body and mind were devastated, and even when he was abandoned by his Chinese Communist Party comrades with whom he had fought, his goal remained unchanged. In these circumstances, he even attempted suicide, but what revitalized Kim San was his Three-Nation Revolution Theory of East Asia, which contained his belief in the impending Sino-Japanese War and the liberation of his homeland. Of course, expecting a rigorous ideological system from a single revolutionary might be asking too much. However, Kim San's Three-Nation Revolution Theory of East Asia is the essence of Kim San's life, who pursued anti-Japanese movements across East Asia, and at the same time, it was like a candle that enabled him to live through the darkest of times. Therefore, to understand Kim San's life and share the weight of the era he felt, this field trip report will conclude by introducing the 'Three-Nation Revolution Theory of East Asia.' References Kim San, Nym Wales. 1997. Arirang. Translated by Song Young-in. Seoul: Dongnyok. Nym Wales. 1986. Arirang 2. Translated by Editorial Department. Seoul: Hakminsa. Mizuno Naoki. 1993. The Turbulent Thirty-Three Years. Seoul: Dongnyok. Park Jong-seong. 1995. “A Study on Kim San’s Revolutionary Thought: Can the Legitimacy of a Legacy of Revolution Be Defended?” Social Science Research, Vol. 8, pp. 47-76. Seowon University Institute of Social Sciences. Son Yeom-hong. 2008. “The National Revolution and Socialist Movement of Kim Seong-suk in China in the 1920s.” Korean Modern and Contemporary History Research, No. 44.

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Son Yeom-hong. 2017. “The Socialist Revolutionary Movement of Koreans in the Beijing Area in the 1920s-1930s.” Vol. 47, Korean Studies Quarterly, Kookmin University Institute of Korean Studies, pp. 293-329. Shin Ju-baek. 2005. History of the National Movement in the Chinese Region in the 1920s-1930s. Seoul: Seonin. Lee Hye-young. 2009. “East Asian Perceptions of an Early Modern Korean Revolutionary.”

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Korean-Chinese Humanities Studies, Vol. 27, pp. 177-200. Sino-Korean Humanities Association. Lee Hoe-seong, Mizuno Naoki. 1993. Arirang After. Translated by Yoon Hae-dong. Seoul: Dongnyok. Lee Hoe-seong. 1993. A Special Journey. Seoul: Dongnyok.

Lee Hoe-seong, Mizuno Naoki. 1993. Arirang After. Translated by Yoon Hae-dong. Seoul: Dongnyok. Lee Hoe-seong. 1993. A Special Journey. Seoul: Dongnyok.