The International Politics of the Qingming Shanghe Tu

National Museum of China · Ju Yeonjeong · Seoul National University

Introduction

The National Museum of China exhibits the formation and development of China as a nation across different eras, from prehistoric times to the present. It is structured around two major themes: the brilliance of ancient Chinese history prior to the 19th century, and the efforts for national rejuvenation during the process of modern nation-state formation in modern and contemporary China. The exhibition on Chinese history before the Opium Wars comprehensively showcases the development of Chinese history from the ancient periods of Sangosidae and Xia, Shang, and Zhou to the late Qing dynasty. The artifacts from the Song dynasty are not only larger and more splendid than those from any other period but are also filled with relics reflecting advancements in science and technology, allowing us to infer the level of development achieved during the Song era.

Considering the civilizational level of socio-economic development in the Song dynasty as depicted by the National Museum, the situation of concluding the Chanyuan Treaty with northern ethnic states and being forced to retreat southward has led to a dichotomous evaluation of the Song's reality. It is emphasized that despite achieving high levels of social, economic, and cultural development, the Song's influence in East Asia ultimately diminished due to military inferiority. In particular, the history of the Song, which was militarily defeated by the 'barbarian' Jurchens and reduced to the Southern Song, is often perceived dramatically in contrast to its non-military achievements.

There is a painting from the late Northern Song period that vividly depicts the capital Kaifeng, known as 'Qingming Shanghe Tu' (Along the River During the Qingming Festival). Although China does not have a formal system of national treasures, if it did, this painting would be considered National Treasure No. 1. While there is debate about the exact period of its creation, it is generally believed to have been painted in the early 1120s. Inside the city walls, the painting focuses on the daily lives of people: crowds of shoppers and vendors in bustling streets, people dining in restaurants, and individuals moving through the streets with heavily laden pack animals and carts. Outside the city walls, numerous large boats, presumably carrying goods, are docked or sailing, and countless people are bustling across bridges connecting the river and the land. The presence of camels carrying goods at the city gate suggests trade with the Western Regions during that period. Furthermore, a group of Koreans, identifiable by their traditional hats, accompanied by servants carrying their belongings, can be seen moving through the streets of Kaifeng. Despite the fact that the Northern Song was defeated by the Jin in 1127 and was on the verge of retreating south to establish the Southern Song, the painting conveys an impression of vibrant activity, splendor, and international exchange.

Considering the level of urban development worldwide in the 11th and 12th centuries, the depiction of Kaifeng in 'Qingming Shanghe Tu' closely resembles an ideal city. It features large, magnificent buildings, bridges connecting the river and the city, vibrant market activities, and a noticeable absence of the poor or sick. The countless figures in the painting are well-dressed and orderly, and the city appears peaceful and clean. Moreover, soldiers are rarely depicted, suggesting that Kaifeng maintained socio-economic stability and order without overt displays of public authority or top-down control (Hansen 1996; Kim Minho 2006). Indeed, the Song dynasty was the most developed state in the world economy during the 11th and 12th centuries, and the socio-economic changes that emerged during this period were so revolutionary that they brought about transformations in the development of the world system. Modelski characterizes the Song as the nascent stage of the modern world order, viewing it as a period of revolution in the world system prior to the dominance of Western states like Portugal, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the United States. This perspective argues that the diverse developments of the Song era should not be seen merely as internal growth dynamics of China but as an early manifestation of modern development on a global scale.

If we follow Modelski's approach, the Song should have been a powerful empire dominating the world. However, the fact that they were defeated by the Liao and Jin and forced to retreat south to the Southern Song presents a contradiction with the Song's status as a state that achieved global socio-economic revolution. Considering that the primary route of the world's official economic network at the time connected Kaifeng and Constantinople (Byzantium), and that Kaifeng played a central role in global supply and demand, the dramatic collapse due to the military invasion by the 'barbarian' Jin cannot be adequately analyzed solely from a realist perspective of power politics. Such an analysis risks underestimating the Song's true strength.

Another notable feature is the inclusion of four individuals identified as Koreans in the depiction of Kaifeng's daily life. Just as the presence of camels suggests active trade with the Western Regions via the Silk Road, the depiction of the Korean delegation indicates significant exchange between the Song and Goryeo. Following the resumption of diplomatic relations in the 1070s, the Song and Goryeo maintained a vibrant relationship in terms of commerce and trade. Politically, Goryeo continued to pay tribute to the Song. Notably, in 1123, shortly before the fall of the Northern Song to the Jin, Goryeo accorded a visiting Song envoy exceptionally respectful treatment based on the tributary system. This suggests that a different set of operating principles governed the relationship between the Song and Goryeo compared to the dynamics between the Song and the Jin.

'Qingming Shanghe Tu' makes the international political interpretation of the Song dynasty particularly intriguing. While debates exist regarding whether the painting satirizes the Song's defeat by the 'barbarian' Jin or expresses nostalgia for the Song as a Sinocentric entity, the depiction of Kaifeng in 'Qingming Shanghe Tu' holds credibility when considering the Song's status as described by Modelski. This raises the question of how to interpret the significant imbalance between the Song's economic power and its military weakness, and how to understand its relationship with Goryeo within this context. Maintaining order in a synchronic system can be examined from various dimensions. The dominant approaches to analyzing the 'tianxia' (all-under-heaven) system, namely the models proposed by Fairbank and Rosovsky, focus exclusively on 'li' (propriety/ritual) and 'li' (power/force), respectively. While these models may be useful for identifying the most representative characteristics, they have significant limitations in capturing the dynamic aspects of historical 'tianxia' order.

This paper aims to initiate a preliminary analysis of the comprehensive operating principles of international political order, where 'li' (power), 'li' (profit), and 'yi' (righteousness) all operate, by examining the Song dynasty's decline in its external relations with the northern regions and the Korean peninsula, despite its domestic socio-economic prosperity and the formation of a stable internal order, starting from the painting 'Qingming Shanghe Tu'.

The Painting 'Qingming Shanghe Tu' is Peculiar

'Qingming Shanghe Tu' is not a landscape painting depicting the overall scenery of the capital Kaifeng, but rather a genre painting that showcases Kaifeng's vibrant commercial and economic activities. The area around the river, the harbor, and the city gates within is densely packed with boats carrying goods, numerous people moving with goods across bridges, and various economic activities taking place within the city walls. It strongly conveys the impression of a bustling city. Furthermore, the buildings housing shops and restaurants are multi-storied and well-constructed, the market scenes are depicted in considerable detail, and the people are portrayed as orderly, some engaging in cultural leisure activities, generally enjoying a stable day in Kaifeng.

Based solely on 'Qingming Shanghe Tu', one can observe the economic and cultural prosperity of Kaifeng and the Northern Song dynasty. However, this contrasts sharply with the historical reality of the Northern Song being militarily defeated by northern ethnic states and forced to retreat south. This discrepancy between the socio-economic achievements and the military outcome has led to debates about the authenticity of 'Qingming Shanghe Tu'. Specifically, if the painting's creation date is placed around the period before and after the Northern Song's defeat by the Jin, some argue that 'Qingming Shanghe Tu' might be a work born out of nostalgia for the Song. The orderly and clean state of Kaifeng, with its bustling market economy and immense population, is particularly questioned. Given the depicted population density, a city of that size would typically be expected to be crowded, impoverished, and prone to crime. However, Kaifeng in 'Qingming Shanghe Tu' does not exhibit these characteristics. Arguments that place the painting's creation in the mid-12th century, after the fall of the Northern Song, suggest that the depicted scenes of daily life were not painted during the Song but rather during the Jin and Yuan dynasties' ascendance, thus representing nostalgia rather than reality. These viewpoints argue that 'Qingming Shanghe Tu' is not a true depiction and may be exaggerated (Hansen 1996, 190-194).

However, considering the Song dynasty's position in Modelski's theory of long waves, as will be explained in the following section, Kaifeng was undoubtedly a globally significant city in socio-economic terms, and thus the depiction in 'Qingming Shanghe Tu' likely reflects the reality of the time. If so, why was the Northern Song defeated by the 'barbarian' Jin? As Modelski argues, the Song's socio-economic capabilities, which served as a precursor to the modern world order, were unique, coupled with relatively weak military strength. Ultimately, the development model championed by the Northern Song as the leading force declined due to military setbacks. The city's characteristics are cited as a reason for its military and defensive vulnerabilities. Kaifeng is situated on a plain along the Yellow River, lacking natural defensive barriers such as mountains. Northern cavalry could reportedly reach Kaifeng within days by crossing the Yellow River. Therefore, from a national defense perspective, Kaifeng was more vulnerable than Luoyang or Chang'an. Despite this, the Song chose Kaifeng as its capital for the convenience of water transport (caoyun). They likely believed that utilizing waterways, which were more efficient than land routes for managing supply and demand, would be advantageous. To ensure security, they stationed hundreds of thousands of soldiers in the northern regions, more than previous dynasties, presumably believing that supplying these troops with food and provisions via the caoyun system would maintain security (Kim Minho 2006, 321-2; Twitchett and Fairbank 2009, 222). While Kaifeng was not the optimal capital in terms of security, it offered favorable conditions for the socio-economic development of the capital.

Kaifeng's geographical conditions likely influenced the Song's remarkable socio-economic growth. However, the lack of corresponding military support clearly indicates that the Song's socio-economic development, which served as a precursor to the modern international order, had limitations in terms of sustainability. Particularly in managing neighboring states like the northern ethnic groups and Goryeo, the Song's influence inevitably waned due to military defeat in the competition with the northern ethnic groups, within a framework that blended the Rosovsky model (northern ethnic groups, military) and the Fairbank model (Goryeo, ritualistic).

Managing the Song's Internal Order: Emergence as a Global Economic Power

According to Modelski's theory of long waves, the rise and growth of the leading sector of the Kondratiev (K-Wave) coincide with the emergence and decline of hegemonic powers. Technological innovation in the leading sector leads to a cycle of development in the world economy. Technological innovation in the leading sector occurs intensively in specific regions and countries, and the nation leading the leading sector emerges as a hegemonic power by reshaping the world political-economic order and normative system. In other words, the nation that leads the leading sector of the K-Wave attains global hegemony. Modelski places the Northern and Southern Song periods at the forefront of the ebb and flow of global hegemony, which includes Portugal, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the United States, viewing the world system as having entered its modern phase during the Song dynasty (Modelski and Thompson 1995).

The Song dynasty was the most developed region in the world during the 11th and 12th centuries and represented significant socio-economic transformation. While this can be viewed solely as an internal growth dynamic of China, the Song's economic revolution holds profound significance as the first emergence of a market economy within the world-system framework. Key factors contributing to the Song's economic revolution, which has been described as the most advanced 'medieval revolution,' include changes in economic and technological patterns. These encompass advancements in agriculture and irrigation, currency, market structures, urbanization, and science and technology. Specifically, the Song led the four leading sectors of the K-Wave: printing (930-990), establishment of market economy networks (990-1060), formation of political administrative systems (1060-1120), and expansion of global trade (maritime trade expansion, 1120-1190) (Modelski and Thompson 1995, 159-170).

At that time, the world was in the early stages of organization with nation-states, corporations, and networks operating at a global level. The development of printing technology facilitated information management, communication technologies advanced across oceans, and technological revolutions in military and economic spheres laid the groundwork for the formation of a global market. For these physical conditions to foster actual socio-economic development and organization, three conditions were necessary: 1) market-based organizations must emerge at the state level, 2) global structures must be gradually assembled through global interactions, and 3) above all, a population capable of meeting economic demand and supply is required (Modelski and Thompson 1995, 143-146).

The Song dynasty exhibited developmental patterns that met all these conditions. Particularly, the explosive population growth led to the establishment of political and economic organizations and systems capable of managing it. Due to the global scale and level of development in terms of both quantity and quality, the Song's population explosion and market organization at the state level accounted for a significant portion of global economic supply and demand. Based on advancements in technologies connecting continents and oceans, the Song dominated the global trade system through interaction with the world economy.

In essence, the rapid population increase was a crucial factor in the Song's rise as a global economic power. The number of households increased from 6.2 million in 980 to 17.5 million in 1101, more than doubling. Consequently, as shown in <Table 1>, one-third of the world's population in the 1100s resided in the Song dynasty. The rapid population growth in the Song served as a catalyst for diversifying its agriculture-centric economic structure. The Song government provided policy support for this, promoting social and economic development in response to population growth (Deng and Zheng 2015). Urbanization also proceeded rapidly in tandem with the dramatic population increase. At that time, seven of the world's twenty major cities were located in the Song dynasty. In other words, the explosive population growth significantly influenced the development of modern state, social, and economic organizations, which were emerging globally, to a world-class level in the Song dynasty.

<Table 1> Proportion of China's Population in World Population, 800-1100

Population

World China China

Year

(in Million) (in Million) (% of the World)

800 220 50 23

1000 265 60 23

1100 320 100 31

(Modelski and Thompson 1995, 146)

<Table 2> shows the population of the Song dynasty and its East Asian neighbors around 1100. The population size of the Song dynasty and its surrounding countries was incomparable. While the Song dynasty had a population of approximately 120 million between 960 and 1125, Japan had 6 million, Goryeo had 3 million, the Liao had 3.8 million, and the Jurchens had 1 million. Given the significant difference in basic scale compared to neighboring countries, and the revolutionary developments in socio-economic spheres, the fact that the Song, Liao, and Jurchens had such vastly different levels of national development, yet the Song maintained political and military balance with the northern ethnic states, is a fascinating point of discussion.

<Table 2> Population of the East Asian Regional System around 1100

Political Unit Year Population

(in millions)

Sung 960-1125 120

Japan 6

Koryo 935-1392 3

Liao 930-1125 3.8

Jurchen 1069 (1115-1234) 1

(Modelski and Thompson 1995, 150)

Managing the Song's International Order: Failure in Military Competition

The Song dynasty emerged after the fragmentation of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period following the fall of the Tang dynasty. Emperor Taizu of Song began consolidating the Song's foundation by expanding his territory from 963 onwards. Taizu was well aware of the substantial threat posed by northern powers. He was concerned about how to manage not only direct confrontations with the Liao but also the risk of attacks on allied kingdoms in the north escalating into full-scale war with the Liao. The decision made by the early Song court was to first absorb the wealth and human resources of the southern kingdoms before engaging in military confrontation with the northern powers (Twitchett and Fairbank 2009, 221).

<Table 3> Comparison of Military Strength between Song and Liao

Sung Liao

Years Total Number Imperial Troops Mounted Troops

of Troops (in Thousand) (in Thousand)

(in Thousand)

968-976 378 193

969-983 36

995-998 666 358

1017-1021 912 432 Before 1031 61

1041-1048 1259

1064-1068 1162 663 1078-1085 612

1101-1125 76

(Modelski and Thompson 1995, 152)

As can be confirmed in <Table 3> above, the Song military was overwhelmingly superior in terms of quantitative scale, but the problem lay in the qualitative aspect. A crucial factor when engaging in military conflict with northern peoples was mobility, the ability to contend with the northern cavalry, and the Song were weak in this regard. Despite the Song soldiers' poor horsemanship, the plains surrounding the capital, Kaifeng, made it inevitable that they would be vulnerable to attacks utilizing the cavalry of northern states.

The tactic used by the Liao to militarily engage the Song was hit-and-run warfare utilizing horses and cavalry. In fact, the Liao possessed approximately 500,000 excellent horses and cavalry, while the Song's horse and cavalry numbers were about 193,000, one-third of the Liao's. Not only were the soldiers skilled in horsemanship, but they also threatened the Song's infantry-based military strength with their superior archery skills and mobility. The Liao used a tactic of rapid attack and retreat, leveraging their remarkable speed to put the Song in a difficult situation. In the early period of the Song Dynasty, when Kaifeng was surrounded by various southern and northern kingdoms, the Song's strategy of first conquering the wealthy but militarily weak southern kingdoms and exhibiting an imperial expansion southward was not entirely unreasonable given the circumstances at the time (Twitchett and Fairbank 2009, 221-222).

The emergence of the Song and the expansion of northern powers, along with the Tanguts, created a triangular balance of power in East Asia. There was almost no confrontation between the Song and the Liao from the early 960s to the late 970s. However, in 979, Emperor Taizong of Song conquered the Northern Han, signaling his ambition for northern expansion. Consequently, the Liao attacked the Song for six years starting in 980. As a result, the economic base of the border regions was destroyed, and the Song suffered significant domestic losses, including a decrease in fiscal revenue due to tax reductions for Hebei landlords. Furthermore, during the war, the Song continuously requested military cooperation from the Goryeo people but received no assistance. Instead, the Jurchens and Goryeo formed a tributary relationship with the Liao as their suzerain, and the Tanguts turned away from the Song and submitted to the Liao, allowing the Liao to expand and strengthen its hegemony in the north. The Song also had to endure considerable geopolitical losses. Most importantly, within the Song court, opinions advocating for diplomatic rather than military methods in dealing with the Liao began to emerge (Twitchett and Fairbank 2009, 247-251).

In 1004, the Liao launched a large-scale attack on the Song. The Liao reached the Shan-yuan region, less than 200 miles from Kaifeng, in just six days. The Liao's strategic objective was to prolong and intensify the war to create an opportunity to conclude a peace treaty favorable to them. During the treaty negotiations, the Liao and Song fiercely contested the sovereignty of the Kuan-nan region. However, the Liao retreated on the issue of sovereignty over this region in exchange for the Song's annual monetary tribute. Through this process, the Song concluded the Treaty of Shan-yuan (Chanyuan Treaty), which stipulated that the Song would provide the Liao with 100,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk annually and respect mutual border demarcations. Although it was humiliating for the Song, a nation of civilization and the Son of Heaven, to minimize military confrontation and offer monetary compensation in its relations with a non-Han people, it was likely related to the Song's strategy of dealing with the Liao through diplomatic means, based on past experiences. However, the Song's strategy of attempting to compensate for its military inferiority with economic means was unsustainable. In 1126, they were driven into the Southern Song by the Jin invasion (Twitchett and Fairbank 2009, 260-267).

While military factors strongly influenced the management of Song's neighboring states, particularly with the northern states, a relationship based on propriety continued with Goryeo. Although the relationship between Goryeo and Song deteriorated when Goryeo established a tributary and investiture relationship with the Liao dynasty, diplomatic ties were restored in 1071, and the relationship between Song and Goryeo, based on the principle of serving the greater power, continued until the fall of the Northern Song dynasty in 1127. The frequent exchanges between Goryeo and Song can be inferred from the depiction of a Goryeo man wearing a traditional hat leading porters through the streets of Kaifeng in the painting *Along the River During the Qingming Festival*. During the Song dynasty, in managing the geopolitical landscape of its surrounding states, Song had to carefully manage military relations with the Liao, whose power waxed and waned, and the emerging Jin dynasty. While the relationship with Goryeo was managed through propriety and relatively successfully, Song's influence inevitably declined due to its failure to manage relations with the Liao and Jin.

The Song Hegemony Model and the Complex Operating Principles of International Order

The Song hegemony model reveals various aspects of how international order was managed. The Song, amidst rapid technological advancements and a population explosion, created the conditions for its growth into an economic powerhouse by managing, organizing, and consolidating its domestic environment. Furthermore, as its development process was the most advanced in the world at the time, the Song became a central node in the global economic network, influencing the world. It emerged as a global economic power through the process of managing its domestic order.

However, the Song hegemony model failed in managing international order. While the relationship with Goryeo, where traditional禮 (li, ritual propriety) operated, continued, the Song could not fully function as an overwhelming empire in East Asia due to its military inferiority in its relations with the northern peoples, the Liao and Jin, where military elements were dominant. The Song successfully conducted international politics of interest (利, li) through interactions with the world, based on its socio-economic development, and the international politics of righteousness (義, yi) based on禮 (li) operated in its dealings with Goryeo. However, it failed in the international politics of power (力, li), and the Song was unable to expand the potential it possessed in the socio-economic sphere into the international political arena due to the northern states.

Existing research on traditional East Asian international order is broadly divided into the Fairbank model (Fairbank 1968), which posits that it operated based on禮 (li, ritual propriety), and the Rossabi model (Rossabi 1983), which strongly reflects the logic of power. Due to the competitive relationship between the Song and the northern states, the Rossabi model generally holds more persuasive power in explaining the dynamics that maintained the world order during this period. However, as Modelski points out, the Song's high level of socio-economic development and the operation of禮 (li) and norms in its relationship with Goryeo cannot be explained by Rossabi's approach. Considering the driving force behind the Song's ability to maintain its state for approximately 150 years and the persistence of the world order even after being driven south, analyzing the operation of international order solely from the perspective of realistic competition seems insufficient. There is a need for a perspective on the complex operating principles of international order, where the logic of power can weaken the influence of the overwhelming logic of interest and norms, and where the logic of interest and norms can persist even under the logic of power. Re-examining the reality and status of the Song, starting from the *Qingming Scroll*, holds significance in providing insights into a world order where the international politics of power (力, li), interest (利, li), and righteousness (義, yi) operate in a complex manner. Bibliography: Kim Min-ho. 2006. "A Record of Customs and Prosperity in Kaifeng of the Northern Song: Meng Yuanlao's *Dongjing Meng Hua Lu*

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