1865 Nagasaki, The Meeting of Two Young Men

Glover Garden, Nagasaki · Kang Mina · Ewha Womans University

In Search of Glover Garden

Glover Garden (グラバー園, Glover Park) is a cultural heritage site created in Nagasaki to commemorate the Meiji era, when Japan's modernization began in earnest. Coincidentally, on the day of our visit, it was holding a special night opening event with the concept of a 'Kingdom of Lights.' We altered our schedule, had our fill of food first, and then headed to Glover Garden after sunset. The Minami-Yamate hill where Glover Garden is located is famous for preserving the appearance of the streets where foreign merchants lived in the 19th century. As it was late, all the shops on the street had already closed, and the area was dark. The castella shops, which likely boasted of being the original and captivated visitors with their liveliness during the day, were all dark and quietly guarded the street. While this sight felt as disappointing as the chilly air, it also made the arrival at our destination feel real, stirring excitement in my heart.

The name 'Glover' originates from Thomas Blake Glover (1838-1911), a Scottish merchant who was active in Nagasaki in the late 19th century. It was reportedly selected from a public competition to name the 'Nagasaki Meiji Village' (長崎明治村) hosted by the city. This suggests that Glover is remembered by modern Japanese as a key figure who significantly influenced the political, economic, and cultural aspects of Japan's modernization process. Glover Garden centers around Glover's former residence and includes various buildings related to the Meiji Restoration, occupying a considerable area. It was registered as a significant preservation district for Japanese traditional buildings in 1991 and as a World Heritage site in 2015, acknowledging its cultural value. Currently, it is considered an indispensable tourist attraction in Nagasaki. The spirit of 19th-century Japan, during its period of modernization, is preserved here, welcoming visitors even in the 21st century.

As a student of international politics, the aspect that most drew me while preparing for the Glover Garden field trip was the scene of young people in the past discussing 'New Japan' all night long. Just as we visit Glover Garden to explore 19th-century Japan, perhaps they debated the nation's future with even greater urgency. Nagasaki, as an old gateway to the outside world, was a place where direct encounters with the West were frequent. Glover, as a foreign merchant knowledgeable about foreign affairs and influential in Japan, made his residence an ideal meeting place for young people who sensed something stirring on the cusp of change.

Among these spaces, there is a windowless secret room in the ceiling of the corridor of the ladies' room, which was used by Glover's wife, Tsuru. It is said that secret meetings between Glover and Sakamoto Ryoma (坂本龍馬, 1835-1867) took place here. Ryoma, a key figure in the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance (薩長同盟), which became the direct catalyst for the Meiji Restoration, is remembered today as one of the most respected figures in Japan. Therefore, the meeting between Ryoma and Glover at Glover Garden warrants attention. To date, it is known that they finalized an arms deal in 1865. In this journey, I wanted to trace the meeting between Glover and Ryoma in the secret room and experience together the emotions, curiosity, convictions, and political choices they felt while contemplating the era of transformation.

A New Stage, 19th-Century Nagasaki

The late Edo period saw Japan facing external pressures from the West and the shock of Western expansionism. The Nagasaki of the 19th century, the stage for the meeting of two men, was a time of internal and external upheaval. In 1865, amidst the conflicts and confusion between foreign powers and Japan, and between the Shogunate and the domains, the demand for modern weaponry surged, and it was at this juncture that the two men formed their connection.

Externally, the 19th century marked the beginning of the imperialist tsunami of Western powers sweeping across East Asia, starting with the Opium Wars in China in 1840. Western powers pressured Japan to open its ports through gunboat diplomacy, and through the unequal treaties thus concluded with the West, the East Asian diplomatic order was incorporated into the modern treaty system. Prior to this, East Asia had long formed a civilization sphere under the independent Sinocentric order, achieving a certain balance and prosperity within it. However, the emergence of Western powers violently imposed a new 'standard of civilization,' forcing East Asian nations to choose a new path at a crossroads of destiny.

Japan, too, followed the traditional framework of viewing China as the standard of civilization and considering those outside the Sinocentric sphere as barbarians. However, due to its relatively peripheral location within the Sinocentric civilization sphere and its unique political condition of being ruled by the warrior class, the samurai, rather than the scholar-officials, Japan's concept of 'Hua-Yi' (civilized vs. barbarian) operated differently from China's (Uechi, Tomoo, 1971). Consequently, Japan possessed a pragmatic perspective that prioritized internal and external circumstances over the traditional civilizational order.

Traces of this can be found in Dejima (出島), located on the coast of Nagasaki. This was the sole place where foreign trade and exchange with the Netherlands continued even before the establishment of the modern treaty system. The Tokugawa Shogunate created the artificial island of Dejima to manage and control relations with foreign countries, allowing foreign visitors to reside and trade there. Japanese officials could also enter for official business. The Shogunate strictly regulated access to Dejima, thereby exercising complete control over foreign trade while simultaneously opening a window for curiosity about the West.

However, from the mid-19th century onwards, Nagasaki began to show significant differences from the previous patterns of foreign exchange that had occurred at Dejima, and Japan's foreign policy began to change in earnest. While Dutch merchants who frequented Dejima in the past showed deference to Shogunate officials, the British consul in the 19th century could arbitrarily issue summons to officials (Sidney Devere Brown, 1993). This change signified that the Shogunate could no longer unilaterally oversee foreign exchange in Nagasaki. Instead, Japan had to manage exchange and trade issues by accepting Western-style diplomatic and consular systems, free trade, tariffs, consular jurisdiction, and most-favored-nation treatment in accordance with the 'treaties' concluded. Furthermore, as Western powers seeking to expand their economic and political influence began to actively enter Nagasaki Port around this time, 19th-century Nagasaki was reconstructed as a stage for modern international politics.

Internal Situation of Japan in the Late Edo Period: The Rise of "Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians" and Modern Military Reforms

Meanwhile, the process of this paradigm shift in international politics had a significant impact on Japan's internal situation at the time. Firstly, following Commodore Perry's arrival and demand for open ports in 1853, debates on opening and closing the country arose among the daimyo (feudal lords) of various regions, or han (domains). The Shogunate failed to exercise effective leadership in this regard, leading to a decline in the domains' trust in the Shogunate. Concurrently, as attempts were made to strengthen Japan's core and rediscover traditional Japanese values in opposition to foreign powers, political interest in the Emperor, who had been a symbolic figure for centuries, increased.

The Kinmon Incident (禁門の変) of 1864 serves as a dramatic manifestation of these internal and external confusions. This involved a street battle in Kyoto waged by the Choshu domain, which advocated for 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians' (尊皇攘夷), revealing the distrust and opposition towards the Shogunate after the opening of the country. The incident ended with the retreat of the Choshu forces, with the Satsuma domain's army taking the vanguard on the Shogunate's side. The Choshu and Satsuma domains were the most powerful among the domains in the Bakuhan system, and the Shogunate maintained its hegemony by allying with one domain to resolve issues when the other caused trouble. In this case, the Shogunate used the pretext of the Emperor's safety to enlist the Satsuma domain's support and repel the Choshu domain. Furthermore, within the Satsuma domain itself, the 'Kobu Gattai' (公武合体, Union of Court and Shogunate) faction, which advocated for unity among the Imperial Court, the Shogunate, and the domain's ruling power, was gaining strength, which is why they sided with the Shogunate.

This incident turned Kyoto into an inferno, causing damage to over 20,000 households. The Choshu domain, which led the rebellion, was branded as an enemy of the Imperial Court (朝敵), meaning trade and dealings with the outside world were prohibited. Following the retreat of the Choshu forces, the Shogunate immediately launched a punitive expedition against Choshu, mobilizing approximately 150,000 troops from 35 domains under the pretext of holding them responsible for the incident. This escalated into the largest civil war of the late Edo period. Ironically, Choshu 'ohagi' (rice cakes) sold explosively in Kyoto, indicating a movement to support the beleaguered Choshu forces. This suggests that various stances existed regarding the crisis of the great transitional period surrounding the opening and closing of the country.

The following year, 1865, the conflict between the Choshu domain and the Shogunate manifested as a competition in modern military reforms, leading to a sharp increase in demand for arms. The Choshu forces, having retreated from Kyoto, experienced the Shimonoseki War (馬関戦争) where they clashed with the fleets of four nations—Britain, France, the Netherlands, and the United States—at the port of Shimonoseki. This experience made them acutely aware of the impossibility of implementing the 'expel the barbarians' policy. They judged it more strategic to build military strength to counter the Shogunate through modern military reforms, rather than stubbornly adhering to expelling foreign powers in the face of their superior modern technology. However, Choshu was prohibited from external trade at the time, so they first had to solve the problem of acquiring weapons.

Meanwhile, the Shogunate was also conflicted after the Shimonoseki War regarding reparations, facing the choice between opening Shimonoseki or paying reparations. The Shogunate lacked the capacity to pay the enormous reparations, but at the same time, it was wary of Choshu's arms dealings, making the opening of Shimonoseki even more burdensome. Ultimately, the Shogunate decided to pay reparations at the suggestion of France. France sought to protect the traditional Shogunate power while simultaneously profiting from exclusive trade with the Shogunate. Through this, France expanded its influence within the Shogunate, surpassing Britain, which was competing for the Japanese market.

Arms Dealings in 1865: The Meeting of Glover and Ryoma

Thomas Blake Glover, Crossing the Seas

Glover was active in Japan's foreign trade from 1859, the year after the opening of ports under the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan. Born in a coastal town in Scotland, he received his education at a renowned gymnasium. On holidays, he learned navigation skills from his father, who was in the coast guard. The vast sea spread out before his eyes must have captivated his curiosity about the world beyond, and the Victorian era's emphasis on pride and a spirit of challenge must have spurred him to embark on new journeys.

Before arriving in Japan, he stayed in Shanghai, China, as a member of Jardine Matheson & Co., a firm renowned for its Far East trade. Shanghai was already experiencing some trade with the West, and Jardine Matheson & Co. had achieved considerable business success through the trade of silk, tea, and opium, its three main commodities at the time. Meanwhile, he felt a sense of ennui in his repetitive life of work, drinking, and prostitution. It was during this time that he met Kenneth Mackenzie, and decided to embark on a new journey with him.

At the time, Japan was clearly an "ocean of opportunity" for foreign trade, but it was also a land fraught with anxiety and danger for foreign merchants. Due to opposition to the opening of ports, attacks and murders of foreigners were frequent, and the places where foreigners could reside were still limited to Dejima. However, he adapted well to the new environment while building his career as Mackenzie's subordinate. He settled his first base in Dejima and got along well with young samurai who were considered hostile to foreigners. He was dissatisfied with the Shogunate, which regulated the expansion of free trade. Realizing that dissatisfaction with the Shogunate's unilateral actions, both internally and externally, was also spreading among the samurai, he was able to grow closer to them (Sugiura, Yuko, 2012). Having left his hometown at a young age and searched for a place to settle, he seems to have experienced a strong sense of camaraderie with the samurai of his age in a foreign land. Subsequently, based on this emotional exchange with the samurai, he keenly analyzed the Japanese political situation and directly and indirectly intervened in the political affairs of the late Edo period.

After Mackenzie left for Shanghai in 1862, Glover established Glover & Co., a branch of Jardine Matheson, under his own name.

He expanded the scale of his company, starting with the tea and silk trade. In 1863, he built the Glover Residence in the Minami-Yamate area, moving his residence to the center of Nagasaki. He had established his base of operations in the city of Nagasaki in earnest.

As you ascend the hill of Minami-Yamate towards Glover's residence, turning your head reveals a surprisingly high altitude. The cityscape of Nagasaki at night is remarkably devoid of tall buildings, with only small lights forming the night view, giving one the feeling of being a sacred being overlooking the city. The dark sea on the other side also seemed to be there for the perfect scenery. While the view from Glover Garden has likely changed over time, the night scenery might not be so different from the past. Glover probably spent a lot of time here gazing at Nagasaki.

If Glover Garden continues to evoke Glover and 19th-century Nagasaki in its location, it is necessary to examine the complex position he occupied at that time, even if he does not fully represent a specific phase of the late 19th century. Why was he so keenly interested in the Japanese political situation, which was deepening with internal and external conflicts of the Shogunate regime and conflicts between domains, through the channels of the samurai? Debates continue to this day regarding whether his political interest was to maximize trade profits as a merchant, or to contribute to building a better Japan by overthrowing the Shogunate regime as a 'Scottish samurai,' or perhaps to intervene in Japanese politics from an imperialist perspective as a subject of the British Empire (Sidney Devere Brown, 1993). While he associated with samurai advocating for the overthrow of the Shogunate and described himself as 'the greatest traitor among the traitors to the Tokugawa Shogunate' (McKay Alexander, 1993), he did not abandon the practical benefits gained from trade with the Shogunate.

Furthermore, it can be confirmed that Glover played a significant role in mediating Anglo-Japanese relations. At the time, Britain and France were engaged in an international political power struggle over diplomacy with Japan. As observed earlier, France seized the initiative with the Shogunate after the Shimonoseki War. In contrast, the British Minister, Harry Parkes, recognizing the weakening of the Shogunate's power, was interested in expanding free trade amidst the confusion of the Imperial Court, the Shogunate, and the domains. In 1864, Glover facilitated Parkes' visit to Kagoshima in Satsuma domain. Following this meeting, Britain adopted a policy towards Japan that favored the domains seeking to overthrow the Shogunate regime. The British side confirmed that the domain forces recognized the impracticality of 'expelling the barbarians' and were increasingly dissatisfied with the Shogunate's trade monopoly. Ultimately, through Glover's intervention, Britain was able to choose a foreign strategy that responded keenly to the Japanese political situation surrounding the Bakuhan system and expand its influence in the long term.

Glover was thus an individual entangled in complex interests amidst internal and external upheavals. While it is difficult to ascertain his personal ambitions or political stance clearly, attention should be paid to his efforts in 1863 in Choshu and 1865 in Satsuma to secretly send young Japanese samurai to Britain—his most ambitious project as a young man. At the time, the Shogunate strictly controlled domain travel, so this involved considerable risk. Nevertheless, his planning of such endeavors demonstrates that his ambitions extended beyond mere economic gain to include criticism of the Shogunate regime, a sense of camaraderie and expectation towards young samurai, and confidence in Western civilization, making them as complex as the turbulent era itself.

The samurai who were sent to Britain thus dedicated themselves to creating a 'New Japan,' calling themselves 'living machines.' They created some of the most dramatic scenes of the late Edo period by stowing away on opium ships disguised as sailors. It is difficult to fathom the shock and confusion these young samurai, fundamentally imbued with the spirit of 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians' and armed with traditional samurai ethics, must have felt upon directly witnessing modern technologies like steam locomotives in London. This ultimately led to the cultivation of the key figures of the Meiji Restoration. In the case of the 'Five Choshu Students' sent to Choshu, they grew to become influential figures in various positions in Meiji Japan: Inoue Kaoru, the first Minister of Foreign Affairs; Ito Hirobumi, the first Prime Minister; Endo Kinsuke, the Director of the Mint; Inoue Masaru, the Director-General of Railways; and Yamao Yōzō, the founder of the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Tokyo.

Sakamoto Ryoma: Deserting His Domain

Until he sought out Katsu Kaishu in 1862, Ryoma, while embracing the ideal of 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians,' seems to have struggled greatly as a low-ranking samurai from the Tosa domain, wondering what he could achieve. He likely felt the limitations and powerlessness of his arguments within the existing class system while advocating for 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians.' This became a major catalyst for him to risk danger and escape his domain in 1862, seeking a place on the national stage. Therefore, his shift in stance to support opening the country after meeting Kaishu was not due to indecisiveness, but because he finally found his place within his dreams and passion for a greater cause.

In 1864, the Shogunate dismissed Katsu Kaishu. Following the Kinmon Incident and the Shimonoseki War, conservatives within the Shogunate gained power, advocating for strengthening the existing system. Kaishu, who argued for fundamental reform of the system and associated with ronin (masterless samurai) from various domains, became an eyesore. Ryoma also had to find a new path and, through Kaishu's introduction, became indebted to Saigo Takamori of the Satsuma domain, with whom Kaishu had connections. At the time, Saigo Takamori, despite participating in the punitive expedition against Choshu, was increasingly distrustful of the Shogunate as the ideal of 'Kobu Gattai' (union of court and shogunate) failed to materialize with the establishment of a domain council or the transfer of the Shogun's privileges. Furthermore, as the Shogunate monopolized profits from foreign trade while the financial situation of the Satsuma domain worsened, he was seeking a new direction for the Bakuhan system and foreign relations. Ryoma's visit to the Satsuma domain under these circumstances must have been a great stimulus for both Ryoma and Saigo Takamori in envisioning Japan's future.

In 1865, Ryoma and his entourage departed for Nagasaki, passing through Kagoshima. Most of the group were trainees from Katsu Kaishu's naval training institute, harboring the dream of overthrowing the Shogunate by building naval power. In Nagasaki, Ryoma established Kameyama Shachu (亀山社中), a trading company and political organization, to profit from mediating arms deals and transporting supplies, while also contributing to the overthrow of the Shogunate. He brought the Satsuma and Choshu domains on as shareholders, creating an economic link between the two domains, believing that the growth of influential domains could check the Shogunate. He often told his colleagues that if a new government were established, it would be developed into a national company to trade with the world across the vast seas, demonstrating his keen insight into power dynamics, his love for the country beyond power, and his confidence. The company evolved into Kaientai (海援隊), Japan's first joint-stock company, and from this base, Ryoma began to exert his influence among Satsuma, Choshu, the Shogunate, Edo, and foreign powers. This also marked the occasion for Glover and Ryoma, who had been forging their own paths at critical historical junctures of the late Edo period, to finally meet.

Negotiations Concluded in 1865

At the Walker Residence, located just past the entrance of Glover Garden, Ryoma's photograph is prominently displayed in the first room on the second floor. I felt quite nervous, imagining Glover standing there

and talking about Ryoma while wearing a similar hat. It was a moment of connection across time.

In March 1865, the Shogunate was planning a second punitive expedition against Choshu. Conservative elements, who had entered the center of power after ousting progressive figures like Katsu Kaishu following the Shimonoseki War, sought to strengthen the Shogunate's position in the Imperial Court. The Shogunate's confidence was influenced by France, which had been backing it since the Shimonoseki War. Meanwhile, the domains, recognizing this war as a power struggle over the Bakuhan system and the Imperial Court's authority, reacted according to their own interests. The Choshu domain, branded as an enemy of the state, was struggling to acquire modern weapons to strengthen its military against the Shogunate. The Satsuma domain, which had led the first punitive expedition, adopted a cautious stance towards the Shogunate's plan, as its finances worsened and the ideal of 'Kobu Gattai' remained unfulfilled. Externally, in July 1865, the new British Minister, Harry Parkes, arrived. He visited Satsuma and, recognizing the Shogunate's declining power and seeking to counter French influence and expand free trade, chose to support the domains.

Thus, 1865 was a time when various entities, traditionally holding their ground on the stage of shifting Western influence, were completing their preparations to reshape themselves. Japan is considered one of the most proactive and flexible nations in adopting Western culture among East Asian countries. It was at this juncture that the historical conditions were formed for the Meiji Restoration to begin, minimizing bloodshed. In this context, the meeting of Glover and Ryoma can be seen as having consolidated influential forces and secured the physical conditions, such as modern military systems and weapons, that enabled Japan to survive the complex civilizational transformation it was undergoing both internally and externally.

Their first meeting, set against the backdrop of Nagasaki, involved arms dealings between Glover & Co. and Kameyama Shachu. Through these two companies, the Choshu domain, branded as an enemy of the state, was able to import weapons from abroad under the name of the Satsuma domain. When the daimyo of the Choshu domain announced its modern military reform policy in May 1865, Kido Takayoshi, one of the 'Three Greats of Meiji,' sought help from Glover, with whom he had a long-standing friendship. In the 1860s, Glover had expanded his business beyond tea and silk to include ships and arms dealing, and possessed a broad and strong network of contacts, which is why the Choshu domain sought him out. He had interacted with young samurai regardless of their domain and had actually facilitated connections between Kido Takayoshi and Godai Tomoatsu, a samurai and entrepreneur from the Satsuma domain. These personal connections became a crucial foundation for fostering potential cooperation between the long-standing rivals, the Choshu and Satsuma domains.

Ryoma was also busy during this period. After leaving Katsu Kaishu's tutelage, he was observing the political climate to gather the strength of the Choshu and Satsuma domains to oppose the Shogunate. Kido Takayoshi requested him to create a venue for secret dealings between the Satsuma domain, which was suffering from food shortages far from the capital, and the Choshu domain, which needed modern weapons. As Kameyama Shachu had the Satsuma domain as a shareholder, it was considered the optimal intermediary for the success of these secret dealings, reflecting their interests. Ryoma, as its head, was deemed relatively trustworthy as he did not belong to any particular faction of the Shogunate or a specific domain. As a result of the negotiations, the Choshu domain was able to acquire a modern Western arms system, starting with approximately 7,300 state-of-the-art rifles procured by Glover. The sailors of Kameyama Shachu also undertook maritime training exercises for them.

Glover, a Scottish merchant who came from Dejima to Nagasaki, and Ryoma, who left the Tosa domain and traveled to various places before arriving in Nagasaki, had no specific opportunity to meet formally. However, they shared a commonality in their keen understanding of a great transitional period. Furthermore, as a foreigner and a low-ranking samurai, they were positioned at the periphery in a traditional sense. Yet, with their charismatic appeal, they possessed the ability to associate with diverse people across domains and social strata. The confidential negotiations between the Choshu and Satsuma domains relied significantly on the intricate and extensive network of relationships of these two individuals. Although not recorded, it is presumed that further exchanges between Glover and Ryoma occurred around this time. At that time, among the five Choshu students sent to Britain by Glover, Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru returned to Japan and were increasing their political influence. Glover played a significant role in the movement to overthrow the Shogunate through them. Ryoma was accelerating efforts to unite the domains by traveling between Edo, Kyoto, Satsuma, Choshu, and Nagasaki. Therefore, the two men involved in arms dealings in Nagasaki, during a period of extensive modern military reforms by the domains, were inevitably intertwined. Although their ambitions differed, the two individuals, who grew up looking at the sea, left their homes, and harbored aspirations in a wider world, must have been a great stimulus to each other.

Then, on March 7, 1866, the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance was formed. After a long period of turmoil, the traditional Bakuhan system finally saw the formation of a coalition of forces capable of achieving new political reforms. Glover, who arrived at Dejima and began his business in a land like an uncharted territory, now stood at the center of Japan's economic, political, and cultural network. Ryoma, too, seemed to be on the verge of ushering in a new Japan, having completed his fated task.

The Meiji Restoration and the Dead End of Two Young Men

Glover and Ryoma, who met dramatically at a crossroads surrounding the modernization of the Japanese military system and arms trade in late Edo period Japan, later went their separate ways. Ryoma laid the spiritual foundation for Japan's modernization by drafting the "Eight-Point Program Drafted on a Ship" (Senchu Hassen), which became the first draft of the Meiji government's proclamation, leaving a profound impact. However, he was assassinated by assailants shortly after the "Great Restoration of the Emperor" (Taisei Hokan) in 1867, ending his life at the age of 33. Meanwhile, Glover continued to cooperate with the Meiji authorities even after the Meiji Restoration, contributing to Japan's modernization through his endeavors in industries such as ginseng, coal, fisheries, railways, and beer.

As felt through documentary sources and this field trip, 19th-century Nagasaki, where Glover and Ryoma stood, was a highly complex stage where internal and external circumstances intertwined, making the future unpredictable. By examining the lives of the two young men contemplating how to carve out their place there, we were able to get a little closer to that time and place. And the night view from Glover Garden on the first night of our field trip remains as a mixture of excitement and trepidation in the face of the 21st century, another period of upheaval, as we looked upon a beautiful yet unfamiliar place.

Photograph 3. Group photo of Sarangbang 9th cohort and the instructor at Glover Garden

References Jansen, Marius B. 1961. Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji Restoration.

New Jersey: Princeton UP.

McKay, Alexander. 1993. Scottish Samurai: Thomas Blake Glover

1838-1911, Edinburgh: Canongate.

Uechi, Tomoo. 1971. “対 外 観 の 転 回 ” (The Turnaround in Foreign Relations), Kindai Nihon Seiji Shisōshi (History of Modern Japanese Political Thought). Tōkyō: Yūhikaku.

Yuko Sugiura. 2012. British and French Diplomacy toward Japan in the Late Shogunate and Thomas Glover

Glover, Bulletin of Naruto University of Education Vol. (27)

Sidney Devere Brown. 1993. “Nagasaki in the Meiji Restoration: Choshu Loyalists and British Arms Merchants,” CROSSROADS 1. http://www.uwosh.edu/home_pages/faculty_staff/earns/meiji.html. (Accessed: 2017. 12. 01.)