The Space Where Empress Dowager Cixi's Desires Were Culminated

Summer Palace · Kim Mi-hyun · Chung-Ang University

Introduction

About 12 km northwest of the Forbidden City lies the imperial garden known as the Summer Palace (颐和园). The Summer Palace was originally the Qingyi Garden (淸漪園), created in 1750 by Emperor Qianlong to celebrate his mother's 60th birthday. After being completely burned down by the Anglo-French allied forces in 1860, it was restored under the leadership of Empress Dowager Cixi over more than ten years, starting in 1884, to become what we know today. Emperor Guangxu, who was on the throne at the time, named it the Summer Palace from the phrase "Yiyang Chonghe" (頤養衝和; meaning to pursue nurturing life and harmony)

The Kunming Lake (昆明湖) and Longevity Hill (万寿山), which proudly display their presence before and behind the various pavilions scattered throughout the Summer Palace, further enhance its beauty. Kunming Lake boasts an area of approximately 3 million square meters, similar in size to Yeouido, and it is astonishing to learn that Longevity Hill was built with the soil excavated from Kunming Lake. The Summer Palace, encompassing Kunming Lake in the front and Longevity Hill in the back, is a place of considerable scale with many stories associated with it. A prominent one is that Empress Dowager Cixi embezzled funds intended for strengthening the navy during the Sino-Japanese War to finance the reconstruction of the Summer Palace. It is truly ironic that the Summer Palace, which may have contributed to hastening the nation's downfall, has become a representative tourist attraction in China today, a must-visit for anyone traveling to Beijing.

The Summer Palace is famous not only because Empress Dowager Cixi, the last powerful figure of the Qing Dynasty, resided there in her later years, but also because it is a place where her will to power and personal interests were well combined. In China's history spanning over 5,000 years, it was quite rare for a woman to lead the nation. In the imperial era, it was considered virtuous for women, including empress dowagers living in palaces, not to leave their confined spaces, and women who transcended such stereotypes and prejudices often became targets of criticism.

Breaking free from criticism required strong self-confidence and a will to power (Lee Young-ok, 2015, p. 286). Therefore, the independent existence of a large-scale space like the Summer Palace, for women, by women, and for women, was unprecedented.

Empress Dowager Cixi strategically used the palace, a space physically and psychologically restricted for women, as a stepping stone to advance into the political arena. After conceiving and giving birth to her son, her status rapidly rose from a mere palace maid to Imperial Concubine Yi. She then used the situation of her young son being enthroned to begin regency. Fully leveraging her position as a mother, she seized power and began to effectively lead the Qing Dynasty from behind the scenes of Emperors Tongzhi and Guangxu. In contrast to the numerous women who disappeared without recognition, Empress Dowager Cixi succeeded in building and expanding her own power within a male-dominated order.

Tracing Empress Dowager Cixi's Footsteps in the Summer Palace

I was very worried because the weather forecast predicted continuous rain during my stay in Beijing, but fortunately, it did not rain while I was visiting the Summer Palace.

Although I expected fewer tourists due to the overcast weather, contrary to my expectations, many people were visiting the Summer Palace. Upon arriving at the Summer Palace and seeing the plaque with Emperor Guangxu's calligraphy, the time I spent contemplating how to best introduce this vast space flashed through my mind.

Entering the East Palace Gate (東宮門) of the Summer Palace with a mix of excitement and nervousness, we were greeted by the Renshou Gate (仁壽門) and the Renshou Hall (仁壽殿). The Renshou Hall was a space used for official duties such as Empress Dowager Cixi and Emperor Guangxu handling state affairs and receiving foreign envoys. It was also here that Emperor Guangxu laid the foundation for the Reform Movement of 1898, declaring "institutional reforms" and appointing Kang Youwei as his reform advisor.

Empress Dowager Cixi, who greatly enjoyed theater, is said to have invited many artists to the Dehe Garden (德和園) to watch performances. The Dehe Garden, the largest theater in the Chinese imperial palace, must have been a space Empress Dowager Cixi frequented in the Summer Palace. We also intended to visit the Dehe Garden to follow in Empress Dowager Cixi's footsteps, but unfortunately, we could not find the entrance and had to turn back.

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The next destination was the Yigyeungwan (宜芸館), where Empress Longyu, the wife of Emperor Guangxu and niece of Empress Dowager Cixi, resided. Empress Dowager Cixi succeeded in marrying her niece to Emperor Guangxu against his wishes, in order to suppress him. It was only natural that Emperor Guangxu's resentment towards Empress Dowager Cixi intensified thereafter. Although we regrettably could not visit it, south of Yigyeungwan is Okrandang (玉澜堂), which served as Emperor Guangxu's bedroom in the Summer Palace and was the place where he was confined after the Wuxu Coup of 1898. For Emperor Guangxu, who lived his entire life under the influence of Empress Dowager Cixi, the Summer Palace is a place imbued with a cruel and sorrowful history.

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On the way from Yiyun Hall to the Long Corridor (長廊), we saw Kunming Lake adorned with lotus flowers. The vast Kunming Lake, with its immeasurable expanse, was even more beautiful, imbued with the atmosphere of summer. Walking along the narrow path beside Kunming Lake, we reached the Long Corridor, known as the longest covered walkway in traditional Chinese gardens.

The Long Corridor was built by Emperor Qianlong so that his mother could stroll in the garden, regardless of whether it was raining in the summer or snowing in the winter. Empress Dowager Cixi, who restored it, would also have been able to walk freely as the mistress of the Summer Palace. The Long Corridor is divided into two sections centered around the Paiyun Gate (排云門) and boasts a total length of 728 meters. The interior of the Long Corridor is decorated with over 8,000 paintings depicting various themes from traditional Chinese novels, folk art, and landscapes, adding to its beauty. I began my presentation at the point where the end of the Long Corridor, which Empress Dowager Cixi might have walked in the late 19th century, meets the Paiyun Gate.

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The Intersection of Personal Characteristics and Environment

Empress Dowager Cixi lived through the turbulent 19th century, a time when the Sinocentric worldview clashed with the Western imperial order, and experienced the most dramatic changes among the remarkable women who led China. She left room for various interpretations, earning extreme evaluations ranging from a "profligate villain" to a "leader who contributed to China's modernization." Before I delved into researching her, I too perceived her merely as "a ruler who pursued pleasure without acknowledging reality." Therefore, it was an intriguing task to contemplate how Empress Dowager Cixi, the ruler, emerged, rather than the one-dimensional figure we remember today.

It is undeniable that Empress Dowager Cixi's personal interests and personality contributed to her rise to power. She was acutely aware that regency was the path through which she could access power. Thus, even after the death of Emperor Tongzhi, to continue her regency, she announced a decision that abolished the customary law of succession where the next generation inherits the throne, allowing for the appointment of someone from the same generation as the emperor (Rawski, 2001, p. 127). As the mother of the emperor, with the 'power to appoint' the emperor, power naturally concentrated in her hands.

She not only knew how to appropriately utilize her position but also possessed qualities that fueled her ambition, such as an interest in politics, an ability to assess the surrounding situation, and skillful maneuvering at the opportune moment.

71 She likely felt the need to 'manage' powerful officials to maintain her position. This is because she demonstrated considerable skill in balancing power by ensuring that no single political faction became too dominant and threatened her position (Liao, 2009, p. 101).

The surrounding environment also played a significant role in Empress Dowager Cixi's ability to maintain power. She cleverly utilized the metaphor derived from the "parent-child" relationship (Ling, 1994, p. 400). Considering that since her accession, three elements were established: the Empress Dowager, symbolizing the source of authority in the empire; the young emperor, existing as an apprentice-ruler; and the imperial clan and officials, who were the elite of the imperial family, this can be considered one of the distinctive features of Empress Dowager Cixi's regime (Kwong, 2000, p. 673). This system was possible due to the contemporary perception that revered the imperial family above all else and the cohesion and support of the bureaucracy. The regency, which had been forbidden until then, became solidified into a system under Empress Dowager Cixi due to the officials around her who propelled this system to the forefront and enabled its execution. They opened the possibility for Empress Dowager Cixi to intervene in politics, and they grew by aligning themselves with her power and supporting each other.

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The Xinyou Coup: Announcing Empress Dowager Cixi's Grand Entrance

The Xinyou Coup (辛酉政变) in 1861 completely altered the course of Empress Dowager Cixi's life. The Xinyou Coup was a coup d'état in which Empress Dowager Cixi and Prince Gong collaborated to execute Sushun, Zaiyuan, and Duanhua, who had been appointed "Regents Assisting in State Affairs" to support the young emperor, and establish a regency system (Biao Jiaoyue, 1985, p. 58). Chinese historian Wu Xiangxiang stated, "Without the Xinyou Coup of 1861, there would have been no Wuxu Coup of 1898," highlighting the profound impact of the Xinyou Coup on the late Qing Empire (Kwong, 1983, pp. 221-222).

Prior to the Xinyou Coup, Empress Dowager Cixi held the status of Imperial Concubine Yi. The spark for the coup began with a memorial submitted by Dong Yuanchun, who argued that the Empress Dowager should act as regent in place of the young emperor and that the emperor's blood relatives should join the council of regents. While Empress Dowager Ci'an and Imperial Concubine Yi responded positively, eight officials strongly resisted, citing Emperor Xianfeng's will and the Qing Dynasty's laws, and threatened to go on strike if regency was forced, thus rebelling (Kim Seong-chan, 2012, pp. 177-178). This demonstrated the officials' desire to monopolize power.

Empress Dowager Cixi, lacking sufficient power to push through the regency system,

73 joined forces with Prince Gong, who was managing affairs in Beijing at the time, to gain the momentum needed to execute the coup (Kim Seong-chan, 2012, p. 205). To carry out the coup, which had been prepared for two months, she summoned the officials from Rehe to Beijing, Prince Gong's stronghold. Immediately, she stripped them of their positions, eliminating all political possibilities except for the coup. Within six days of arriving in Beijing, she punished all eight officials, achieving a nearly bloodless coup.

Empress Dowager Cixi realized she could lead a new system by leveraging her position and, to overcome her situational limitations, brought in other political forces that were not exclusive to her. By creating shared interests, she steered the game in a more favorable direction. The success of the Xinyou Coup not only enabled the "institutional experiment" of regency, unprecedented in the Qing Dynasty, but also served as a mechanism that propelled her to the pinnacle of power (Kwong, 1983, pp. 221-222).

Having successfully expressed her political ambitions by utilizing her resources and the surrounding environment through the Xinyou Coup, Empress Dowager Cixi, at the age of 27, took control of the chaotic political situation on behalf of the young Emperor Tongzhi. The title Empress Dowager Cixi also originated at this time. After returning to Beijing, upon Emperor Tongzhi's enthronement, Empress Dowager Ci'an (慈安太后) was given to Empress Dowager Ci'an, and Imperial Concubine Yi was given the title Empress Dowager Cixi (慈禧太后).

74 Empress Dowager Ci'an used the eastern palace, and Empress Dowager Cixi used the western palace, thus becoming known as the Eastern Empress Dowager and the Western Empress Dowager, respectively. For the next few years, she briefly honed her state management skills with the help of Prince Gong, but Empress Dowager Cixi eventually surpassed Prince Gong, who had participated in the coup with her, to become the undisputed supreme ruler of the Forbidden City.

The Wuxu Coup: Successfully Returning to Power

During her first regency period on behalf of Emperor Tongzhi, Empress Dowager Cixi appointed several influential Han officials, including Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, and Zuo Zongtang. Through them, she aimed to develop the arms industry, introduce technology, and establish industrial, communication, and transportation facilities. These efforts to strengthen the nation led to the Tongzhi Restoration (同治中興), a period of reduced internal and external crises and recovered national strength. However, it was by no means easy to solve the chronic ailments that plagued the Qing Dynasty with temporary palliatives.

In 1889, Emperor Guangxu, who succeeded Emperor Tongzhi,

75 came of age, declared personal rule, left the Forbidden City, and moved his residence to the Summer Palace. For Emperor Guangxu, personal rule was a good opportunity to escape Empress Dowager Cixi's shadow. However, the Qing Dynasty, weakened by two Opium Wars and over 20 years of domestic rebellions, experienced another unexpected defeat in 1894. Contrary to expectations of superiority, they were helplessly defeated by Japan, which applied pressure from all fronts with its modern weaponry. This was another disaster for the Qing Dynasty, which had seemed to be recovering slowly and successfully from previous shocks. The Sino-Japanese War exposed the Qing's inner weakness: too strong to collapse, but too weak to rebuild (Tan, 2014, p. 420).

Emperor Guangxu, seeking to recover from the aftermath of the Sino-Japanese War defeat and attempting various reforms, initiated fundamental reforms in 1898 to overcome the Qing's vulnerabilities and push Empress Dowager Cixi to the periphery of power. With poorly trained soldiers, dwindling resources, unskilled technicians, and scholars ignorant of technology, they could not effectively respond to the threat of foreign powers possessing strong armies. To implement reforms across politics, economy, society, and education, he appointed key figures of the reformist faction, such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. Emperor Guangxu, with the help of officials and advisors, seemed to succeed in distancing himself from Empress Dowager Cixi, but he encountered institutional and political limitations as he clashed with the interests of many.

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Meanwhile, Empress Dowager Cixi, who seemed to have retreated from the center of power by moving her residence from the Forbidden City to the Summer Palace, was indulging in luxury and pleasure while sharpening her resolve to re-enter the political arena. Through her confidants, she was aware of the reformist currents being pursued by the emperor and the reformists, and realizing that this could pose a threat to 'her' country and power, she sought to rally conservative forces to halt the reforms.

Then, the reformists' plan to completely exclude Empress Dowager Cixi from politics was revealed through a tip-off by Yuan Shikai (袁世凱), giving Empress Dowager Cixi the justification to launch a coup. As in the Xinyou Coup, she prepared the grounds to legitimize her political actions. In particular, she sought the support of officials under the pretext of resolving the political turmoil caused by Emperor Guangxu's reforms (Lee Young-ok, 2015, pp. 290-291).

The day after receiving the tip-off, Empress Dowager Cixi confined Emperor Guangxu to the Hall of Benevolent Reflection (英台). She then executed six reformists, including Tan Sitong (譚嗣同), and abolished all the Wuxu reforms introduced by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, who had fled abroad. This was the Wuxu Coup (戊戌政變) of 1898, which marked Empress Dowager Cixi's official return to politics. The success of the coup

77 was an opportunity to reaffirm Empress Dowager Cixi's power and influence, and it meant that the reformists' attempt to completely push Empress Dowager Cixi out of the political sphere had come to naught. Emperor Guangxu's reforms, which he had pursued with the intention of modernizing China, were tragically extinguished like a candle in the wind. The newly empowered Empress Dowager Cixi wielded absolute power until her death, playing a decisive role in Qing's future at the threshold of modernity.

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Leaving Behind the Breath of Empress Dowager Cixi

True to its name, the Summer Palace, the greenery was deepening throughout the grounds as we entered the threshold of summer. After completing the presentation in a short period, we viewed the Pavilion of Buddhist Incense (佛香阁), which can be seen from anywhere in the Summer Palace when looking up from in front of the painted corridor, and the layered pavilions and palaces above it, before walking out along the long corridor again. As we walked through the maze-like Summer Palace in a daze, we returned to the East Palace Gate, which was the entrance, without having seen the Hall of Longevity (乐寿堂), Empress Dowager Cixi's living quarters.

Empress Dowager Cixi's life was complex and cannot be explained by the one-dimensional label of 'evil woman.' She skillfully utilized the resources at her disposal to lead a once-in-a-lifetime coup d'état, not just once but twice, and reigned as the supreme ruler of the Qing Empire for nearly half a century. Of course, Empress Dowager Cixi's capabilities also had clear limitations. Her failure to accurately assess the objective domestic and international conditions led to grievous mistakes that determined the rise and fall of the Qing Dynasty, and excessive luxury and indulgence became her defining characteristics.

Thus far, public perception of Empress Dowager Cixi has been closer to condemnation than criticism. Now is the time to move beyond the generally accepted evaluations and to assemble new fragments of her life that have not been well-revealed.

79 to form a complex assessment. I hope that this presentation will serve as a starting point for a nuanced evaluation of Empress Dowager Cixi as I leave the Summer Palace behind and move forward.

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