Where Baekje Envoys Remained

EAI Sarangbang Students' Beijing Expedition: The Youth of Sarangbang Embrace Beijing

Bae Yeseul Georgetown University

Category: EAI Sarangbang Excursions
Published: August 1, 2017

National Museum · Bae Yeseul · Georgetown University

Introduction

Our Sarangbang 8th expedition team arrived in Beijing on Thursday, June 22, 2017, at 10:40 AM. The day before our departure, we read news reports about record-breaking heavy rainfall expected for several days, which had caused six disappearances in Beijing. Our main concern was the weather in Beijing, but fortunately, the rain had almost stopped by the time we arrived. The notorious Chinese fine dust had been washed away, and Beijing greeted us with a picturesque atmosphere. With excited hearts,

We ate Yunnan-style hot pot (shabu-shabu) at a restaurant on a traditional Chinese hutong street that had the ambiance of Bukchon Hanok Village, and then proceeded to the National Museum, located east of Tiananmen Square, the first destination of our expedition.

The National Museum boasts the largest area among museums worldwide, housing an astonishing 1.3 million artifacts spanning from China's 1.7 million-year history to the present. I was thrilled at the thought of encountering the history of the world order, which we had learned about throughout the semester in Sarangbang classes, through these artifacts. Among the countless artifacts in the National Museum, I prepared a presentation on the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" (Liang Zhigong Tu), which depicts foreign envoys who paid tribute to the Liang Dynasty during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. I was looking forward to seeing not only Chinese history but also East Asian history, which was part of the world order, through the museum's artifacts.

Eager to see the Baekje envoys depicted in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" as soon as possible, and to save time, I gave my presentation on the Baekje envoys on the bus heading to the National Museum. I reconstructed the circumstances of why the Baekje envoys were dispatched to the Liang Dynasty, what they saw there, and how they contributed to Baekje's diplomacy.

Baekje Envoys Dispatched to the Liang Dynasty

In the early to mid-6th century, Baekje dispatched envoys five times to the Liang Dynasty, the most prosperous of the Southern Dynasties, which had embraced the legitimacy and advanced culture of the Han Chinese. (Jeong Jae-yun 2009, 188) Emperor Yuan of Liang (Xiao Yi, 508-554) created the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" (Liang Zhigong Tu), which depicted foreign envoys offering tribute and included records of their countries' histories and customs. Next to the depiction of the neatly dressed Baekje envoys is the "Zhifang Zhi" (Record of Provinces), which contains information about Baekje. It records the relationships between Baekje, Goguryeo, and surrounding smaller states, the history of relations between Baekje and China, and Baekje's governance system. Based on this, we investigated why the Baekje envoys in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" were dispatched to the Liang Dynasty, what they observed and brought back to Baekje, and how this contributed to Baekje's diplomatic strategies, including its relations with neighboring states like Wa and Silla.

The "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" was begun by Emperor Yuan of Liang (Xiao Yi, reigned 552-554) around 526 to 539, when he served as the governor of Jing Province as a prince, and was completed in 540, the 40th year since Emperor Wu of Liang founded the dynasty. (Hong Yun-ki 2004, 243) Emperor Yuan of Liang observed the actual foreign envoys dispatched to the Liang Dynasty, inquired about their customs, and then created the diagram. (Jeong Jae-yun 2009, 188) The activities of the envoys dispatched to Liang during this period, among the five missions from Baekje to Liang, are described in Chinese historical texts

7 such as the "Book of Liang" and "Samguk Sagi" as follows:

"Biography of Liang and Baekje": "In the 6th year of Zhongda Tong (534) and the Great

7th year (541), Baekje repeatedly sent envoys to offer local products from Baekje. In addition,

and also requested Buddhist scriptures such as the Nirvana Sutra, their commentaries, and a master of silk weaving.

requested the dispatch of monks who could explain Buddhist scriptures such as the "Nirvana Sutra" and scholars of the "Book of Odes" (Mao Shi), as well as artisans and painters. Emperor Wu of Liang issued an edict to grant all of these requests to Baekje. (Zhongda Tong sixth year, Datong seventh year, repeatedly sent envoys offering local products;

also requested monks to explain scriptures such as the "Nirvana Sutra," scholars of the "Book of Odes," and artisans and painters. Emperor Wu of Liang issued an edict to grant all of these requests to Baekje. (Zhongda Tong sixth year, Datong seventh year, repeatedly sent envoys offering local products;

"Samguk Sagi, Baekje Chronicle 4, King Seong, 19th Year": "In the 19th year of King Seong's reign (541), the King sent an envoy to the Liang Dynasty to offer tribute and also submitted a memorial requesting scholars of the "Book of Odes" and explanations of scriptures such as the "Nirvana Sutra," as well as artisans and painters. Liang granted our requests. (Nineteenth year, the king sent an envoy to the Liang court to offer tribute, and also submitted a memorial requesting scholars of the "Book of Odes" and explanations of scriptures such as the "Nirvana Sutra," as well as artisans and painters. The request was granted.)"

an envoy to the Liang Dynasty to offer tribute and also submitted a memorial requesting scholars of the "Book of Odes" and explanations of scriptures such as the "Nirvana Sutra," as well as artisans and painters. Liang granted our requests. (Nineteenth year, the king sent an envoy to the Liang court to offer tribute, and also submitted a memorial requesting scholars of the "Book of Odes" and explanations of scriptures such as the "Nirvana Sutra," as well as artisans and painters. The request was granted.)"

Baekje sent envoys to the Liang Dynasty in 534 and 541. The envoys dispatched in 534 offered local products from Baekje, while those dispatched in 541 requested scriptures such as the "Nirvana Sutra," their commentaries, scholars of the "Book of Odes," artisans, and painters. The use of the characters '敕' (edict) and '表請' (memorial request) in the original documents is particularly noteworthy. These Chinese characters indicate that Baekje formally requested cultural goods from the Liang Dynasty through official documents, and the Liang Dynasty responded with official documents. This shows that the Baekje envoys dispatched to the Liang Dynasty in 541 did not make spontaneous requests on-site (Hong Yun-ki 2004, 249). The dispatch of envoys in 541 implies that Baekje had already assessed the cultural goods of the Liang Dynasty and planned to request specific resources. To request these cultural goods from the Liang Dynasty in 541, the envoys dispatched earlier must have assessed the resources on-site in the Liang Dynasty. Therefore, a key activity of the Baekje envoys dispatched in 534 would have been to observe Buddhist scriptures such as the "Nirvana Sutra," their commentaries, scholars of the "Book of Odes," artisans, and painters, which are mentioned in the "Book of Liang" during their mission to the Liang Dynasty.

It is recorded that requests were made for craftsmen and artists. Notably, the characters ‘chik (敕)’ and ‘pyochung (表請)’ used in the original document are significant. These characters indicate that Baekje formally requested goods from the Liang Dynasty through an official document, and that the Liang Dynasty also responded to the request through an official document. This suggests that the Baekje envoy dispatched to the Liang Dynasty in 541 did not make spontaneous requests on-site (Hong Yoon-ki 2004, 249). When sending the envoy in 541, Baekje had already assessed the goods of the Liang Dynasty and planned to request resources by sending an official document through the envoy. Therefore, in order to request support for goods from the Liang Dynasty in 541, the envoy previously dispatched had to assess the resources on-site in the Liang Dynasty. Thus, the Baekje envoy dispatched in 534 likely engaged in key activities such as observing Buddhist scriptures like the Nirvana Sutra mentioned in the Wei Liang Shu, along with commentaries, as well as artisans, craftsmen, and painters.

What Baekje Envoys Saw in the Liang Dynasty

Most of the cultural goods requested by Baekje from the Liang Dynasty, such as scriptures like the "Nirvana Sutra" and their commentaries, artisans, and painters,

9 were related to the adoption and dissemination of Buddhism. At the time of the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" creation, Baekje had moved its capital to Ungjin after losing the Han River basin to Goguryeo. Its territory had significantly shrunk, and the kingdom was focused on internal consolidation. In this environment seeking stability, Baekje likely found the theories of the "Nirvana Sutra," which focused on internal compulsion relative to other Buddhist scriptures, particularly appealing. (Hong Yun-ki 2004, 264) In particular, Liang had developed extensive resources related to the "Nirvana Sutra," such as commissioning the renowned Liang Buddhist scholar Bao Liang in 509 to compile the "Commentary on the Meaning of the Nirvana Sutra" (Niepan Jing Yishu) and Seng Lang to compile the "Collected Commentaries on the Nirvana Sutra" (Niepan Jing Jishuo), which synthesized the main interpretations of the "Nirvana Sutra" by the ten great masters and Emperor Wu of Liang's thoughts. This likely attracted Baekje's interest. The "Nirvana Sutra" contained content on the nature of Buddha-nature, which was a core theory of Buddhism in the Liang Dynasty at the time of the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" creation. During the reign of King Seong of Baekje (reigned 523-554), Baekje actively adopted the Buddhist scholarship of the Liang Dynasty and emulated its policies for strengthening royal authority. (Choi Yeon-sik 2011, 199) Following the Liang Dynasty, Seong built large-scale temples and was granted the title of Cakravartin (Wheel-Turning Monarch), an ideal monarch in ancient Indian Buddhism, by Emperor Wu of Liang, mirroring the title Emperor Wu had granted himself. (Jeong Jae-yun 2009, 192)

Artisans (Gongjang) refer to architectural designers and carpenters, and painters (Hwasa) refer to artists. The Baekje envoys in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" likely observed the large-scale temples and Buddhist statues in the Liang Dynasty and assessed their quality. The "Book of Liang," in its "Biography of Liang," records that the total number of temples in Liang was 2,846, with 248 Buddhist scriptures translated and 82,700 monks and nuns. (Hong Yun-ki 2004, 250-251) Artifacts such as the "Liang Guan Wa Wei Shi" (Tiles Made for the Liang Official) bricks found in the Gongju area of the Korean Peninsula confirm that Baekje invited artisans from Liang and received technical training.

In addition to Buddhist cultural goods, as mentioned in the "Book of Liang," Baekje also requested scholars of the "Book of Odes" (Mao Shi), a commentary on one of China's foremost Confucian classics, the "Book of Odes." Emperor Wu of Liang had focused on reinterpreting the "Book of Odes," compiling commentaries such as "Mao Shi Fa Ti Xu Yi" (Preface and Meaning of Mao Shi) and "Mao Shi Da Yi" (Great Meaning of Mao Shi). The Baekje envoys in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" recognized this and requested scholars of the "Book of Odes" from the Liang Dynasty. (Hong Yun-ki 2004, 252)

Baekje's Diplomatic Strategy as an Intermediary State

Baekje's Middleman State Diplomacy Strategy

Based on what the Baekje envoys in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" observed in the Liang Dynasty in 534, Baekje requested the "Nirvana Sutra," scholars of the "Book of Odes," artisans, and painters from the Liang Dynasty in 541. These advanced cultural goods introduced by Baekje had a significant impact on Baekje's cultural development, leaving traces in Baekje's Buddhist statues and temples. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that Baekje transmitted these advanced cultural goods acquired from the Liang Dynasty to neighboring countries, Wa and Silla. Through the Baekje envoys depicted in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States," we can observe the flow of cultural exchange in East Asia at the time of the diagram's creation from the Liang Dynasty to Baekje, and from Baekje to Wa. This provides clues to Baekje's strategy of winning over neighboring countries, given its military inferiority to Goguryeo.

As mentioned earlier, Baekje was in a situation where it had to continuously counter Goguryeo within the Korean Peninsula. The "Zhifang Zhi" section on Baekje in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" records that Baekje was "frequently defeated by Goguryeo." After losing the Han River basin, the capital of Baekje, to Goguryeo in 475, Baekje had to resist Goguryeo's threats and thus made efforts to form alliances with neighboring Wa and Silla.

In its diplomatic relations with Wa, around the early to mid-6th century when the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" was created, Baekje consistently sent scholars of the Five Classics (including scholars of the "Book of Odes"), Buddhist scriptures, and artisans to Wa. Records show that during the 510s, when there were conflicts between Goguryeo and Imna (Gaya region), Baekje sent scholars of the Five Classics such as Dan Yang-er and Go An-mu.

12 Around 532, when Silla was attempting to conquer Geumgwan Gaya, Baekje sent scholars of the Five Classics such as Ma Jeong-an and local products from Baekje. From 542 to 554, Baekje sent scholars of the Five Classics, Buddhist scriptures, and artisans to Wa. In the early 550s, during its battles with Goguryeo, Baekje sent scholars, Buddhist texts, Buddhist statues, and specialists in history, medicine, and music. (Kim Hyun-gu 2002, 29-32) The Japanese historical text "Nihon Shoki" records Baekje's active provision of advanced cultural goods to Wa and requests for military support from the late 4th century onwards. (Hong Seon-hwa 2010, 98-99) Wa, in its process of developing into an ancient state, also needed advanced cultural goods and was greatly interested in receiving cultural influences from the Liang Dynasty and Baekje's unique culture. Baekje was able to fulfill Wa's needs. Notably, when examining the envoys in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States," the Wa envoys, compared to the neat Baekje envoys, are depicted barefoot, wrapped in unsewn cloth, and with exposed bodies, indicating that from the Liang Dynasty's perspective, Wa was perceived as a less developed country than Baekje.

Silla also encountered advanced cultural goods such as Buddhist resources and technologies through Baekje. According to the "Book of Liang," during the period when the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" was created, Silla "was too small to send envoys independently" and dispatched envoys to the Liang Dynasty through Baekje. In the 15th year of King Soji of Silla (493), despite Baekje and Silla already having an alliance through marriage ("Battle of Gwansanseong Fortress and Baekje's Ordeal," National Library of Korea Digital Collection), there are records of official correspondence between Silla and Baekje around the time Baekje sent envoys to the Liang Dynasty.

13 This can be interpreted as an agreement between Silla and Baekje. (Jeong Jae-yun 2009, 191) It can be inferred that by dispatching envoys to the Liang Dynasty on behalf of Silla, Baekje maintained a friendly relationship to counter Goguryeo together, while also transmitting necessary advanced cultural goods and technologies to Silla.

The Liang Dynasty and Baekje: Mutually Friendly

Liang and Baekje: A Mutually Friendly Relationship

In the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States," while many foreign envoys are depicted with bare feet, disheveled hair, and loose clothing, the Baekje envoys are portrayed with a respectful posture and neat attire. This illustrates the friendly relationship between the Liang Dynasty and Baekje at the time of the diagram's creation. Just as Baekje needed the Liang Dynasty to counter Goguryeo, the Liang Dynasty also benefited from its relationship with Baekje. During the period when the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" was created, China was in the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. The Liang Dynasty in the south had to counter the northern dynasties, which possessed powerful cavalry forces. While the northern dynasties had military strength, the Southern Dynasties held the advantage in terms of legitimacy as a Han Chinese orthodox dynasty and advanced culture, resulting in a situation where neither side held an absolute advantage.

14 Just as Baekje sought to counter Goguryeo by winning over the neighboring states of Wa and Silla, the Southern and Northern Dynasties also sought to counter their rivals by establishing friendly relations with neighboring countries.

Considering this situation, the "Zhifang Zhi" section on Baekje in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" states, "In the early Liang period, Yu Tai was appointed General Who Conquers the East (Zhengdong Jiangjun)." This refers to the first investiture Baekje received from the Liang Dynasty in 502. The title "General Who Conquers the East" signifies "conquering the east" and was a higher rank than the previous titles of General Who Pacifies the East (Zhendong Jiangjun) and Grand General Who Pacifies the East (Zhendong Da Jiangjun), elevating Baekje's status. The "Zhifang Zhi" also records that Baekje repeatedly defeated Goguryeo in 521. In relation to this, the "Book of Liang," in its Baekje section, states, "Finally established friendly relations with Goguryeo. Baekje became a powerful nation again." (Interpretation based on Jeong Jae-yun 2009, 190) Therefore, at the time the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States" was created, the Liang Dynasty perceived Baekje as a nation with sufficient power to counter Goguryeo on the Korean Peninsula. Furthermore, by transmitting advanced cultural goods from the Liang Dynasty to Wa and Silla, Baekje's friendly relationship with the Liang Dynasty was advantageous.

Based on what the Baekje envoys, dispatched to the Liang Dynasty in 6th-century China, observed and reported back to Baekje, Baekje was able to import advanced cultural goods and formulate a strategy to win over the neighboring states of Wa and Silla.

15 Having lost its capital to Goguryeo and being militarily inferior to its neighbors, Baekje, as an intermediary state, developed a survival strategy by fostering friendly relations with neighboring countries through cultural transmission. I believe this holds significant meaning.

A Glimpse of the National Museum

In front of the statue of the founding members of the Communist Party of China in the first-floor lobby

As the story of the Baekje envoys concluded, the bus arrived precisely in front of the National Museum. The National Museum of China covers an area of 192,000 square meters, equivalent to 27 football fields, making it the largest museum in the world. We had approximately one and a half hours to spend at this vast museum, carrying the mission to make the most of our time before entering the National Museum to meet the Baekje envoys from the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States."

16 area and houses approximately 1.3 million artifacts. Our expedition team entered the National Museum with the mission to make the most of our limited time of about an hour and a half, aiming to see the Baekje envoys depicted in the "Diagram of Tribute from Various States."

First-floor exhibition hall 'Leaders and the People'

During our brief time at the National Museum, we were able to explore the first-floor exhibition titled 'Leaders and the People' and the underground exhibition hall 'Ancient China.' From the museum's lobby, as seen in the photo above, we could already sense the grand scale and atmosphere emphasizing the founding and achievements of the Communist Party of China. In the first-floor modern art exhibition, we viewed paintings themed around the leaders and people of the Communist Party of China.

17 We saw vivid historical scenes featuring the Chinese Communist Party members engaged in battle with determined expressions in challenging environments, holding red flags, as well as figures who contributed to the revolution.

After viewing the paintings at the contemporary art exhibition, our research team moved to the ancient Chinese exhibition hall on the first basement level. This hall displayed artifacts chronologically from the prehistoric era approximately 1.7 million years ago, through the Shang, Xia, Zhou, Spring and Autumn, Warring States, Qin, Han, Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui, Tang, Five Dynasties, Liao, Song, Jin, Yuan, and finally the Ming and Qing dynasties. Although we could not examine the artifacts in detail for each period, we were able to recognize items such as Qin Shi Huang's Terracotta Army, which we had heard about, and the distinctive characteristics of each era were noticeable as we passed through the exhibition halls. In the Xia, Shang, and Zhou period exhibition hall, we saw artifacts similar in form to the bronze ritual vessel 'Da Yu Ding,' where the character 'Tian' (天), representing the concept of 'heavenly order' learned in our seminar, first acquired a political meaning beyond simply denoting nature. In the Tang Dynasty exhibition hall, a variety of colorful sancai glazed ceramic works, distinct from other periods, were on display.

Passing through various exhibition halls, we finally entered the Southern and Northern Dynasties exhibition hall, where the Yangzhigongtu, which we had been researching for several months, was displayed. With an excited heart, we entered, but unfortunately, we could not find the Baekje envoy in the Yangzhigongtu.

As shown in the photo below, the Yangzhigongtu is in the form of a scroll. Although 12 envoys offering tribute to the Liang Dynasty remain in the current Yangzhigongtu, the scroll we saw was rolled up at both ends, allowing us to see only seven envoys in the center. Unfortunately, the figure of the Baekje envoy, who should have been at the far right end, could not be seen.

The Yangzhigongtu displayed in the Southern and Northern Dynasties hall, rolled up at both ends.

Leaving the Museum

After spending about an hour and a half exploring the National Museum, we had to leave with regret.

19 We had to hurry to the Forbidden City, so we couldn't read detailed explanations for many artifacts and even skipped some entirely. What was particularly regrettable was that before our visit, we had encountered many evaluations suggesting that the National Museum heavily reflects the history of China's multi-ethnic integration and the legitimacy of the Communist Party, and we were curious as to why. However, in our haste to absorb the displayed artifacts, we were unable to ascertain if this was indeed the case. Despite these regrets, by diligently examining thousands of years of history within the given time, we felt a sense of accomplishment in establishing a solid foundation for future learning. Just as we gained insight into the diplomacy of the Middle Kingdom through the figures in the painting Yangzhigongtu, the National Museum, with its myriad stories embedded in its artifacts, has become a place we wish to revisit.

Reference: "The Battle of Gwanseong and Baekje's Ordeal," National Library of Korea Digital Collection.

Homepage: http://nlcollection.nl.go.kr/front/detail/detail.do?rec_

key=CO0000004004&category_id=CA0000000058 (Accessed:

June 20, 2017)

Kim, Hyun-gu. 2002. Was Baekje the Origin of Japan? Seoul: Changjakgwa Pipyeongsa. Jeong, Jae-yoon. 2009. "Baekje's Diplomacy Centered on the Southern Dynasties in the 5th-6th Centuries and Its Significance."

20 Baekje Culture, vol. 41, no. 0. Choi, Yeon-sik. 2011. "The Development of Buddhist Studies in Late Baekje." Journal of Buddhist Studies, No.

28.

Hong, Seon-hwa. 2010. "The Relationship between Baekje and Wa in the 4th-6th Centuries." Journal of Korean-Japanese Relations, Vol.

36, pp. 3-38.

Hong, Yoon-gi. 2004. "Baekje Envoys in Yangzhigongtu and Liu Xie." Journal of Chinese Language and Literature, Vol.

27, no. 0.

*This text is an AI translation of an original written in Korean. Some translations or nuances may be inaccurate.

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