Discovering Hidden Joseon Within the Forbidden City

Drawing the New Millennium in Beijing, the Millennium Capital: The Youth of Sarangbang Embrace Beijing

Oh Seung-hee Ewha Womans University

Category: EAI Sarangbang Excursions
Published: April 20, 2016

Forbidden City · Oh Seung-hee · Ewha Womans University

Key Takeaways!

◆ Official Name: Palace Museum since 1925 ◆ Opening Hours: Tuesday-Sunday (Closed Mondays)

◆ Hours: April-October 8:30-17:00

November-March 8:30-16:30 (Last entry at 15:30) ◆ Admission Fee: 40 Yuan per person (Separate tickets for Treasure Gallery and Clock Gallery, 10 Yuan each) The first itinerary on the second day of the Sarangbang 4th expedition to Beijing was the Forbidden City. It was initially planned for the afternoon of the first day, but considering the admission hours, we judged it would be insufficient and changed it to an early morning schedule for the next day. The Forbidden City opens for entry at 8:30 AM and restricts entry at 3:30 PM, so we thought it would be best to visit early in the morning.

On the morning of the second day, the Beijing sky was, as on the previous day, covered in a hazy dust. The expectation of a leisurely walk through the Forbidden City was dashed. More than the worry of tired legs from walking through the vast Forbidden City, the concern about a sore throat from the hazy air was more pressing. 3. Discovering Hidden Joseon Within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City

The vermilion Tiananmen Gate, Mao Zedong's portrait, and the hazy sky enveloping the towering Five-Starred Red Flag in the photo represent China in 2014. The Forbidden City, the imperial palace of China, is a symbol of Beijing, located in its center. What thoughts did Koreans who visited the Forbidden City have as they walked through this vast space?

As it was when I visited four years ago, many Koreans compare it to Seoul's Gyeongbok Palace at least once. In terms of size, the Forbidden City seems to overwhelmingly surpass Gyeongbok Palace, but in reality, the Forbidden City is less than 1 km in distance. Based on official area, the Forbidden City is 720,000 square meters and Gyeongbok Palace is approximately 430,000 square meters, so the difference is not more than double. It is said to appear larger due to its high walls, grand building scale, and labyrinthine spaces in every corner (Jin Byung-pal, 2002). Furthermore, considering the beauty and historical significance of each royal palace, it is difficult to determine which is superior.

However, can we truly consider the Forbidden City as solely Chinese and Gyeongbok Palace as solely Korean? If we think of the Forbidden City merely as a place where Chinese emperors lived, this space becomes their place and their story alone. But if we view this space within the context of Sino-Korean relations, we see buildings and hear stories that we couldn't perceive before. This expedition report will explore the Joseon people who actually lived within the Forbidden City, tracing back to the Joseon-Ming Dynasty relations approximately 600 years ago.

Touring the Forbidden City

The Forbidden City (紫禁城) was the imperial palace of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The name 'Forbidden City' means 'purple, forbidden city,' embodying the Chinese worldview. It refers to the purple color of the Ziwei Palace (Polaris) and the meaning that unauthorized access was prohibited. The English name 'Forbidden City' emphasizes the meaning of prohibition. Chinese people call it 'Gugong' (故宫), and its official name since 1925 is the Palace Museum. The Forbidden City holds various stories, as diverse as its names.

Construction of the Forbidden City began when Emperor Yongle of the Ming Dynasty decided to move the capital to Beijing. From 1406 to 1420, over 14 years, with the mobilization of one million laborers, a palace surrounded by a 10-meter high wall, comprising about 9,000 rooms in over 800 buildings, was constructed. It served as the residence for 24 emperors over 500 years, from the Ming to the Qing dynasties. How can we fully explore this vast Forbidden City, measuring 961 meters from north to south and 753 meters from east to west?

For reference, the official website of the Forbidden City suggests itineraries for touring the Forbidden City by time. A tour focusing on the essential buildings takes about two hours, with options for half-day and full-day tours. A detailed examination of each building might require more than a full day.

The full-day itinerary suggests 17 locations: Meridian Gate ▶ Hall of Martial Valor ▶ Hall of Literary Glory ▶ Gate of Supreme Harmony ▶ Hall of Supreme Harmony ▶ Hall of Central Harmony ▶ Hall of Preserving Harmony ▶ Palace of Heavenly Purity ▶ Palace of Earthly Tranquility ▶ Palace of Heavenly Purity ▶ Hall of Mental Cultivation ▶ Six Western Palaces ▶ Imperial Garden ▶ Six Eastern Palaces ▶ Hall of Benevolent Rites ▶ Palace of Benevolent Joy ▶ Gate of Divine Might. Among these, the shortest route is Meridian Gate ▶ Gate of Supreme Harmony ▶ Hall of Supreme Harmony ▶ Hall of Central Harmony ▶ Hall of Preserving Harmony ▶ Palace of Heavenly Purity ▶ Palace of Earthly Tranquility ▶ Palace of Heavenly Purity ▶ Imperial Garden ▶ Six Western Palaces or some of the Six Eastern Palaces ▶ Gate of Divine Might (Palace Museum, 2014). Since we plan to visit Yuanmingyuan and the Summer Palace today, we decided to follow the shortest route.

Although the Forbidden City appears very complex at first glance, upon closer inspection, the '3-6-9 Rule,' based on a symmetrical structure, is hidden throughout. The entire Forbidden City is broadly divided into a political space and a living space. The political space, where official duties were conducted, is also called the 'Outer Court' (外朝). The living space, where the emperor's daily life took place, is called the 'Inner Court' (内廷). The core buildings of the political space are the three great halls known as the 'Three Great Halls' (三大殿): the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony, and the Hall of Preserving Harmony. The living space also has three core buildings, known as the 'Three Rear Palaces' (后三宫): the Palace of Heavenly Purity, the Palace of Earthly Tranquility, and the Palace of Heavenly Purity. The transition between the political and living spaces can be considered to occur upon passing through the Gate of Heavenly Purity. Each set of three buildings forms a pair, situated at the center of the political and living spaces.

Flanking the Three Great Halls are the Hall of Literary Glory and the Hall of Martial Valor. Behind the Three Rear Palaces is the Imperial Garden, and to the east and west of the Three Rear Palaces are the Six Eastern Palaces and Six Western Palaces, which were residential areas for the consorts. East of the Six Eastern Palaces are Buddhist structures such as the Hall of Celestial Brilliance (天穹宝殿), and west of the Six Western Palaces are Buddhist structures such as the Hall of Central Brilliance. In the southern part of the Outer Eastern Route (外东路) are the Hall of Auspicious Splendor (撷芳殿) or the Southern Three Residences (南三所), where princes resided, and in the northern part is the Palace of Benevolent Joy (宁寿宫), built by Emperor Qianlong as a palace for the retired emperor. In the southern part of the Outer Western Route (外西路) are the Palace of Compassion and Tranquility (慈宁宫) and the Palace of Longevity and Tranquility (寿康宫), where the empress dowager resided, and in the northern part are structures like the Palace of Longevity and Peace (寿安宫) and Buddhist structures such as the Hall of English Brilliance (英华殿) (Palace Museum, 2014).

With the Three Great Halls and the Three Rear Palaces aligned on a north-south axis, the Meridian Gate, the main southern entrance, is located to the south, and the Gate of Divine Might is to the north. Upon entering the Meridian Gate, the Inner Golden Water River flows ahead, and the Gate of Eastern Radiance to the east and the Gate of Western Radiance to the west stand guard.

Further zoning of the Forbidden City can be categorized into: Grand Court Ceremonial Zone (大朝典礼区) - Imperial Residence Zone (宫寝生活区) - Retired Emperor's Palace Zone (太上皇宫殿区) - Crown Prince's Palace Zone (太子宫殿区) - Empress Dowager and Consort Retirement Zone (太后太妃养老区) - Prince's Living Quarters Zone (皇子生活区) - Imperial Garden and Temple Zone (御苑与庙宇区) - Treasury and Government Office Zone (府库与衙署区) - City Wall and Guard Zone (城池侍卫区) (Palace Museum, 2014).

Political Space: The Three Great Halls (Hall of Supreme Harmony - Hall of Central Harmony - Hall of Preserving Harmony) The political space unfolds after passing through the Meridian Gate, the main entrance to the Forbidden City. There are no trees in the Forbidden City, partly for defensive purposes and partly to accentuate the buildings. Passing through the Gate of Supreme Harmony and standing in the center, one faces the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the first building of the Three Great Halls. It is the office space for imperial enthronements, promulgation of decrees, political, and diplomatic events. In front of the Hall of Supreme Harmony, 13,844 golden dragons guard the emperor's majesty (Jin Byung-pal, 2002).

The Hall of Supreme Harmony is the largest space in the Forbidden City, and most official ceremonies were held here. When the emperor appeared during official events, everyone would perform the 'three bows and nine kowtows' (三跪九叩頭).

It is said that they were raised. On the eaves of Taehwajeon, various mythical creatures are seated (三跪九叩頭). At the very front is a celestial being riding a phoenix, followed by a dragon, phoenix, lion, celestial horse, sea horse, mountain fox, water monster, sea lion, bull, ten mythical beings, and a dragon head at the very end. The number of mythical creatures indicates the importance of the building, and Taehwajeon has the largest number, with 10 mythical creatures on its eaves (Jin Byeong-pal 2002).

There are many stories that unfolded in this vast space over the long period of 500 years. In this expedition, we aim to focus on the stories from the early Ming Dynasty, when the Forbidden City was constructed. As the Forbidden City began to be built following Emperor Yongle's decision to move the capital, we will explore it through the lens of Emperor Yongle's life.

Emperor Yongle was the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty and the fourth son of the first emperor, Hongwu. He usurped the throne from his nephew, Emperor Jianwen, the second emperor, through an event known as the 'Jingnan Campaign.' As a means to strengthen the legitimacy of his rule, he first moved the capital to Beijing and established the Forbidden City, and then is known to have commissioned the voyages of Zheng He.

The three great halls, known today as the Hall of Supreme Harmony, Hall of Central Harmony, and Hall of Preserving Harmony, were not called by these names when the Forbidden City was completed. Their initial names were the Hall of Fengtian, Hall of Huagai, and Hall of Jinshen, respectively. Completed in the first month of the first year of Yongle (1406), the Hall of Fengtian, Hall of Huagai, and Hall of Jinshen were engulfed in a great fire in early April, less than three months later. Emperor Yongle issued an imperial edict to his civil and military officials, stating: 3. Discovering Hidden Joseon Within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City

Having lost the three palaces, including Fengtian, to fire, my heart is filled with dread and I do not know what to do.

If I have truly erred in any way, I implore you all to speak your minds frankly.

Give me the opportunity to correct my mistakes and follow the will of Heaven.

(CCTV, 2013).

Upon the issuance of the edict, officials reacted vehemently. Some seized this opportunity to point out that Emperor Yongle only focused on achieving great deeds and that moving the capital to Beijing was a wrong decision. In a state of confusion between fear and rage, Emperor Yongle had his ministers kneel before the Meridian Gate and debate amongst themselves, and he reportedly executed one official who had criticized him (CCTV, 2013).

In front of the Hall of Preserving Harmony in the Forbidden City

Among the various evaluations of Emperor Yongle, quoting Eunuch Hai Shou's words recorded in the 'Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty,' Emperor Yongle is described as outwardly strict but inwardly compassionate and generous. He is recorded as a capable emperor who was dignified and valiant, skilled in strategic warfare, and knew how to draw out people's talents (History Special, 2014). Although there were hardships and many deaths during Emperor Yongle's reign, he is evaluated as a capable ruler for laying the foundation of the Ming Dynasty and ensuring its security from surrounding powers.

Living Space: The Three Rear Palaces (Palace of Heavenly Purity - Palace of Earthly Tranquility - Palace of Heavenly Purity) Although the living space is smaller in area than the political space, it contains more buildings and, consequently, a greater variety of stories. The Three Rear Palaces—the Palace of Heavenly Purity, the Palace of Earthly Tranquility, and the Palace of Heavenly Purity—are the emperor's private and intimate spaces. To the east and west of the Palace of Heavenly Purity are the Six Eastern Palaces and Six Western Palaces, which were the residences of the consorts. The Six Western Palaces include two palaces named the Palace of Longevity and the Palace of Peaceful Abode, where Empress Dowager Cixi lived. Other palaces include the Palace of Eternal Spring, the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Palace of Benevolent Joy, and the Palace of Harmonious Felicity.

Emperor Yongle showed a particular interest in Joseon people. He requested tribute of palace women and eunuchs from Joseon, specifically seeking virgins of outstanding beauty and from good families. For eunuchs, he requested approximately 300-400, stating that Joseon people were 'intelligent and agile, suitable for entrusting with tasks' (Jeong Gu-seon, 2002). Sending palace women and eunuchs to China was considered part of the tributary system. While there are stories of Goguryeo and Baekje sending beautiful women to the Northern Wei, precise records are lacking. According to records, approximately 170 people were sent to China during the Goryeo Dynasty and 146 during the Joseon Dynasty (KOCCA, 2014). The story of Empress Ki, who was sent as a tribute woman from Goryeo during the reign of Emperor Shun of Yuan and rose to the position of Empress, became famous in Korea through a drama.

During the Joseon Dynasty, women from prominent families were married to the children of Ming emperors to receive investiture from the Ming Dynasty. When a Ming envoy proposed a marriage between a prince and a Joseon woman during the reign of King Taejong, King Taejong, seeking to indirectly evade this, decided to send Joseon women to the Ming Dynasty instead of his son. The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty record that King Taejong prohibited marriages to prepare for the tribute of palace women (Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, 2005).

The largest number of tribute women and eunuchs were sent during Emperor Yongle's reign. Tribute women were selected in three phases. The first selection was in the 6th year of Yongle (1408), the second selection was attempted in the 7th year of Yongle (1409) but was canceled and then offered in 1410, and the third selection took place in the 15th year of Yongle (1417). Eunuchs were requested very frequently (Jeong Gu-seon, 2002).

On April 16, 1408, Emperor Yongle dispatched the eunuch Huang Yan to Hanyang to select consorts from Joseon. In November, Kwon, Yun, Yi, Yeo, and Choi were selected. They arrived in Beijing in early 1409, and among them, Kwon was enfeoffed as Consort Xian (贤妃), Yun as Consort Shun (顺妃), Yi as Zhaoyi (昭仪), Yeo as Jieyu (婕妤), and Choi as Meiren (美人).

In the second selection of consorts in the 7th year of Yongle (1409), Huang Yan expressed dissatisfaction, stating, 'When I came here last year, all the women were plump, with rough skin and short stature, making them all unappealing.' Various methods were employed in Joseon to avoid being selected as tribute women. Since beauty was highly valued, efforts were made to create physical imperfections. They cut their hair, deliberately inflicted scars, and even damaged parts of their bodies. As virgins were required, parents of daughters tried to marry them off as quickly as possible, even marrying off infants (Jeong Gu-seon, 2002).

In the third selection of consorts in the 15th year of Yongle (1417), Lady Han and Lady Huang went to the Ming Dynasty. The group departed on August 6 and arrived in Beijing on October 8. Emperor Yongle particularly favored Lady Han's daughter, and the Han family received immense wealth from him.

Among the eunuchs sent in the early Ming Dynasty were those who were dispatched as envoys from the Ming Dynasty to select tribute women. The Joseon king personally welcomed the envoy carrying the imperial edict, treated them with courtesy during their stay in Joseon, and bid them farewell until the very end (Jeong Gu-seon, 2002). When Joseon people who had gone to the Ming Dynasty visited Joseon as Ming envoys, what thoughts did they have in their minds during their journeys between Joseon and Ming, considering the relationship between the Joseon king and these envoys, and the role of the Joseon person who brought other Joseon people along? 3. Discovering Hidden Joseon Within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City

[Table 1] Records of Tribute Women and Eunuchs during the Joseon Dynasty

Round Dynasty Joseon Dynasty Tribute Women (Ming) Eunuchs Total by Dynasty Grand Total

Taejo

1 Taejo 3rd Year (1394) May 5 5 5

Hongwu Emperor

2 Taejong 3rd Year (1403) November 33 192 33

3 Taejong 4th Year (1404) June 20 20

4 Taejong 5th Year (1405) July 8 8

5 Taejong 7th Year (1407) October 29 29

6 Taejong 8th Year (1408) November 12 33

Seongjo (5 virgins, 16 maids)

Yongle Emperor 5

7 Taizong 10 (1410) October 2 7

(1 virgin, 4 maids)

8 Taizong 17th year (1417) August 4 18

(2 virgins, 12 maids)

9 Sejong 1st year (1419) February 20 20

Ming

10 Sejong 5th year (1423) September 24 24

11 Sejong 9th year (1427) July (7 virgins, 16 maids, 1096 43

compiled 10)

12 Sejong 10th year (1428) October 1 (1 virgin) 6 7

Xuanzong

13 Sejong 11th year (1429) July 6 26

(Compiled 12, singing and dancing 8)

14 Sejong 15th year (1433) November 20

(Compiled 2)

Xian Zong

15 Seongjong 14th year (1483) October 19 19 19

Chenghua Emperor

Taizong 10

16 Injo 16th year (1638) July 10 10

Chongzhen Emperor (10 virgins)

Sejo

17 Qing, Hyojong 1st year (1650) April (17 virgins, 1 wet nurse, 22 22

Shunzhi Emperor

12 maids, 3 servant women)

Total 146 198 344 344 * Reconstructed based on Jeong Guseon 2002, pp. 51, 56, 122.

** Note: Only figures confirmed in records are shown; the actual number sent was likely higher.

The Lives of Joseon People Who Lived in the Forbidden City

It is now time to take a closer look at the lives of the Joseon palace women and eunuchs who went to China during the Ming Dynasty. We will examine the story of three Joseon palace women who went to China during the Yongle Emperor's reign, as recorded in the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty.

(1) The Story of Lady Kwon: The Murder of Consort Kwon

Lady Kwon, who attracted the most attention during the first selection, received the favor of the Yongle Emperor. Lady Kwon was enfeebled as Consort Xian (贤妃) and exercised the authority of the Empress. The "Biographies of Imperial Concubines" in the "History of Ming" also records that Lady Kwon's beauty was as pure as unadulterated rice, earning the Emperor's favor. However, less than two years after arriving in China, in October 1410, she died on the return journey with the Yongle Emperor, who had set out on a campaign against the Mongols. It was later revealed that she had been poisoned by Yeo Mi-in, another Joseon palace woman, out of jealousy. Enraged, the Yongle Emperor executed Yeo Mi-in. However, Yeo Mi-in was framed. A Chinese palace woman named Ms. Yeo, harboring resentment due to her relationship with Yeo Mi-in, orchestrated the plot (Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty 2005). Upon learning of this, the Yongle Emperor executed Ms. Yeo and all those involved.

3. Discovering Hidden Joseon in the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City (2) The Story of Ms. Yeo: The Yu Lu Incident

The Yu Lu Incident (魚呂之亂) was an event that led to the deaths of most of the Joseon palace women who had gone to China. The Yu Lu Incident, in which all palace women except Lady Han and Lady Choi were involved, began with Yeo Mi-in, who was implicated in the poisoning of Consort Kwon.

Ms. Yeo

entered the imperial palace and attempted to befriend Ms. Yeo from her home country

(Merchant)

(呂氏)

(呂

because they shared the same surname, but when Ms. Yeo refused, the merchant's daughter Ms. Yeo harbored resentment and falsely accused Consort Kwon

氏)

(權妃)

died

of illness

(卒)

that she had given her poison in tea. The Emperor, enraged, executed Ms. Yeo and hundreds of palace women and eunuchs. Afterward, the merchant's daughter Ms. Yeo

and the palace woman Ms. Yu

killed Empress Lü and hundreds of palace maids and eunuchs. Subsequently, Lady Lü, the daughter of a merchant,

(魚氏)

(宦者)

had an affair with a eunuch, but the Emperor, aware of this, did not reveal it out of affection for the two.

(宦者)

However, the two, fearing exposure, hanged themselves. The Emperor, enraged, the incident

began to spread.

was born to Lady Yeo, daughter of In. When Lady Yeo's maidservant

was interrogated, all

(maidservant)

falsely confessed

(false confession)

to committing regicide

(regicide)

(false confession)

(implicated) numbered 2,800 people, all of whom were personally executed. Some

even insulted the Emperor to his face, saying, “He is impotent and had an affair with a young eunuch, so whom can he blame?” Later, the Emperor ordered Hua Gong

to paint a picture of Lady Yeo embracing a young eunuch, intending to show it to future generations. However, thinking of Lady Yu

he could not do so. He buried her next to Shouling

thinking of this, was unable to do so, and

(Lady Yu)

and when Emperor Renzong ascended the throne, she was exhumed and discarded. When this rebellion

(Shouling)

first broke out, the families of Im (任), Jeong (鄭),

hanged themselves, and

Hwang (黃), and Yi (李)

were interrogated and executed. Although Hwang implicated many others, Yi said, “Death is inevitable, so why

(Yi)

should I implicate others? I will die alone.” Thus, she did not falsely accuse anyone and died. Consequently, all the women of the Joseon delegation

died, except for Lady Choi

who was in Nanjing at the time. When the Emperor summoned palace women in Nanjing, Lady Choi could not attend due to illness. After the rebellion broke out and almost all the palace women were killed, she came to the capital and thus escaped death. Lady Han

(Lady Choi)

was locked in an empty room during the rebellion and was not given food for several days. However, a eunuch guarding the door took pity on her and occasionally slipped food under the door, so she did not die. But all her maids

(Lady Han)

were captured and killed, and her wet nurse, Kim Heuk

was imprisoned. After the incident concluded,

put it in the door, so she did not die. However, the maid

(Kim Heuk)

she was granted a special pardon (Annals of the Joseon Dynasty 2005).

The excessive number of deaths caused fear and anger towards Emperor Yongle. Consequently, the fires at Fengtian Hall, Huagai Hall, and Jinshin Hall were interpreted as a sign of Heaven's will regarding Emperor Yongle's actions.

Initially, the Emperor favored Lady Wang

and intended to make her Empress. However, after Lady Wang

(Lady Wang)

died, the Emperor grieved deeply and was distraught, leading to all his subsequent actions being misguided and his executions excessively cruel. When dealing with the rebellion of Yu (魚) and Lu (呂),

and his executions excessively cruel. When dealing with the rebellion of Yu (魚) and Lu (呂),

he was severely punishing them. Suddenly, lightning struck Fengtian,

(Lu)

Huagai, and Jinshin

Halls

and all three halls

(Jinshin)

burned down. The palace staff rejoiced, believing, “The Emperor will surely fear this celestial event and cease his massacres.” (Annals of the Joseon Dynasty 2005).

However, this incident, which resulted in the deaths of most of the Joseon palace women and eunuchs, was not immediately reported in Joseon.

The recent rebellion of Yu (魚) and Lu (呂) is an unprecedented event. The King of Joseon is benevolent and is second only to China. Moreover, according to ancient texts, when initially

(Lu)

is benevolent and is second only to China. Moreover, according to ancient texts, when initially

When the teachings spread to various countries, Joseon almost became the Zhonghua

(Zhonghua)

(中華)

but due to its small size, it could not become the Zhonghua. Furthermore, the Liaodong region historically belonged to Joseon, and if we were to now obtain Liaodong, China would undoubtedly be unable to resist. It is impossible to inform them of such a disturbance (Annals of the Joseon Dynasty 2005).

I do not believe that the slight fear of Joseon should be taken literally. However, it seems they feared that the loss of face and honor of the Chinese Emperor due to the Eoyujinan would become known to Joseon. (3) The Story of Lady Han: Emperor Yongle's Death and Burial

The two palace ladies who had survived the two incidents mentioned earlier could not escape death. In September 1424, upon the death of Emperor Yongle, over 30 imperial consorts, including Lady Han, a Joseon palace lady, were buried alive with him. In the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, Lady Han's wet nurse, Kim Heuk, returned to Joseon and recounted the situation at the time as follows:

(Annals of the Joseon Dynasty 2005).

On the day of their death, they were all fed in the courtyard, and after the meal, they were led together onto the raised platform.

The sounds of their wailing shook the palace buildings. A small wooden platform was placed on the platform, and they were made to stand on it. A noose was made and placed around their necks, and the platform was removed, causing them all to die by hanging. As Lady Han was dying, she said to Kim Heuk,

On the day of their death, they were all fed in the courtyard, and after the meal, they were led together onto the raised platform.

A small wooden platform was placed on the platform, and they were made to stand on it. A noose was made and placed around their necks, and the platform was removed, causing them all to die by hanging.

causing them all to die by hanging. As Lady Han was dying, she said to Kim Heuk,

As Lady Han was dying, she said to Kim Heuk,

“Brother, I am leaving.

I am leaving.”

(金黑)

(娘)

“Brother, I am leaving.” Before she finished speaking, an attendant next to her pulled out the stool, and she died along with Lady Choi (Annals of the Joseon Dynasty 2005).

pulled out the stool, and she died along with Lady Choi (Annals of the Joseon Dynasty 2005).

Lady Han appears to have been 15 or 16 years old when she went to China, and 22 or 23 years old when she was buried alive. Later, Lady Han's youngest sister, Lady Gongde, also faced the danger of being buried alive upon Emperor Xianzong's death. Fortunately, her elder sister had already been buried alive, and it was deemed unbearable to bury the younger sister as well, so she was excluded. She is said to have lived in this Forbidden City until her late seventies. The practice of burial alive ended when Emperor Yingzong left an imperial edict prohibiting burial alive in 1464 (Jeong Guseon 2002). 3. Finding Joseon Hidden within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City

Leaving the Forbidden City: The Light and Shadow of the Forbidden City

During this expedition, we recreated the lives of Emperor Yongle and the Joseon people hidden within the Forbidden City. Entering the Meridian Gate of the Forbidden City, the experience is distinctly different from previous visits that focused solely on the political spaces. Generally, the Forbidden City preserves the appearance of the Qing Dynasty, and the focus has been solely on the emperor's life. However, by examining the hidden stories of Emperor Yongle in the early Ming Dynasty and those who were with him, we discover fear, sorrow, and oppression hidden within this vast, radiant space. We imagine various life stories, from the mundane daily lives that might have occurred in every corner of the living quarters to the fear within the forbidden palace. We hope this has served as an opportunity to reflect once again on the past, present, and future of Sino-Korean relations at the heart of Beijing. ■

Leaving the Forbidden City: The hidden loneliness and sorrow of the otherwise splendid and radiant Forbidden City are palpable.

Let's watch and think together! Q. The numbers 3, 6, and 9, as well as the colors red and yellow, found throughout the Forbidden City

symbolize the emperor. The Chinese consider the five cardinal colors (Wufangzhengse), namely red, blue, yellow, white, and black, as primary colors that imbue meaning into heaven, earth, and the space of human life.

imbue meaning into heaven, earth, and the space of human life. However, why does the Forbidden City, meaning 'Purple Forbidden City',

emphasize the color purple?

became purple?

A. The Forbidden City was designed and built reflecting the cosmology of the Chinese at the time.

Most buildings have yellow roofs and red walls.

The red and yellow colors symbolizing the emperor

form the image symbolizing the Forbidden City. But why is it a purple forbidden city?

But why is it a purple forbidden city?

The Chinese believed that the universe was divided into three realms, and among them,

they considered the 'Ziwei Palace' (Purple Palace), where the Big Dipper is located, to be the center (Chen Bingba 2002). The city where the Son of Heaven, who inherited the mandate of heaven, resided is precisely

the Forbidden City, which inherited the purple color of the Ziwei Palace. Purple, a mixture of red and blue, transcends red and is known as the color of power that reveals the highest status and nobility in political and social terms.

Purple, a mixture of red and blue, transcends red and is known as the color of power that reveals the highest status and nobility in political and social terms.

Purple is considered the color reflecting the Chinese concept of the world.

3. Finding Joseon Hidden within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City

Interestingly, the English name for the Forbidden City, 'Forbidden City,' emphasizes the meaning of prohibition rather than the meaning of its purple color.

emphasizes the meaning of prohibition rather than the meaning of its purple color.

Considering the Forbidden City's cosmology and the meaning of prohibition, as in 'no one can enter,' combined with the prohibition of not being able to leave easily, the complex lives of the many people who lived in this space become apparent.

Did you feel the dark, gloomy, and lonely aspects hidden within the splendor of the Forbidden City during this presentation? The Forbidden City can be referred to with various names, each carrying diverse meanings.

Lee Juwon: When visiting the Forbidden City, I asked questions, and Seunghee noona always answered them.

Seunghee noona. The delicate Joseon palace ladies who competed for survival and power in the political spaces of the Forbidden City. When I learned about these hidden stories behind the actual studies, such as the policy of serving the great powers (Sadae) and realism, their brilliance seemed to shine even brighter.

When I learned about these hidden stories behind the actual studies, such as the policy of serving the great powers (Sadae) and realism, their brilliance seemed to shine even brighter.

Kim Min-geol: Under the theme of 'Finding Joseon in Chinese History,' a general explanation,

classification by the nature of the space, and appropriate placement of text and photographs.

It was neat from the reader's perspective. The sorrows that may have been imbued in the lives of Joseon women.

Kim Yujeong: The dense air pollution that could even obscure the morning sun in Beijing made me think that much will change depending on how China responds to environmental issues more than any other problem. However, even that dust could not hide the majesty of the Forbidden City. The Forbidden City, with its inscribed tablets in both Chinese and Manchu, is a space thoroughly filled with political symbols. Numerous buildings each have their own functions and meanings, and they were arranged at calculated locations and angles. The vast, treeless space in front of the Taihe Hall evoked scenes from the Walt Disney animation Mulan, where the protagonist confronts northern invaders and saves the emperor. It was a fresh experience, like listening to an exciting old tale, to trace the Joseon women in this space where countless stories are layered.

China's response to environmental issues will determine many outcomes.

However, even that dust could not hide the majesty of the Forbidden City.

The Forbidden City, with its inscribed tablets in both Chinese and Manchu, is a space thoroughly filled with political symbols.

Numerous buildings each have their own functions and meanings, and they were arranged at calculated locations and angles.

They were arranged at calculated locations and angles.

The vast, treeless space in front of the Taihe Hall evoked scenes from the Walt Disney animation Mulan, where the protagonist confronts northern invaders and saves the emperor.

evoked scenes from the Walt Disney animation Mulan, where the protagonist confronts northern invaders and saves the emperor.

where the protagonist confronts northern invaders and saves the emperor.

It was a fresh experience, like listening to an exciting old tale, to trace the Joseon women in this space where countless stories are layered.

Tracing the Joseon women in this space where countless stories are layered was a fresh experience, like listening to an exciting old tale.

was a fresh experience, like listening to an exciting old tale.

Kim Seon-kyung: The story of the Forbidden City's palace women told by Seunghee unnie was really interesting, and it felt like I was getting a glimpse into their daily lives, not just the political aspects of the Forbidden City.

Kim Seon-kyung: The story of the Forbidden City's palace women told by Seunghee unnie was really interesting and felt like I was getting a glimpse into their daily lives, not just the political aspects of the Forbidden City.

It felt like I was getting a glimpse into their daily lives, not just the political aspects of the Forbidden City.

Shin Boram: The tragedy of Joseon women hidden within the immense Forbidden City felt like watching a palace drama. I wondered how many women from various countries, not just Joseon, were taken as tribute women, and it made me feel somber. On the other hand, I became curious about how China's imperial culture was influenced by this 'multicultural family of empire.' 3. Finding Hidden Joseon within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City Lee Jae-seong: Seunghee noona, who told us stories centered on the Joseon women who lived in the Forbidden City! Somehow, the story sounded like a fairy tale, and it was really fun. I was able to hear in detail about the joys and sorrows of the lives of Joseon people due to politics in the Forbidden City, which made me realize how international politics affects the lives of individuals. Moreover, when Seunghee noona told me that the Forbidden City was not twice the size of Gyeongbok Palace, I was surprised that the scale difference was smaller than I expected.

Shin Boram: The tragedy of Joseon women hidden within the immense Forbidden City felt like watching a palace drama.

felt like watching a palace drama.

I wondered how many women from various countries, not just Joseon, were taken as tribute women, and it made me feel somber.

and it made me feel somber. On the other hand, I became curious about how China's imperial culture was influenced by this 'multicultural family of empire.'

I became curious about how China's imperial culture was influenced by this 'multicultural family of empire.'

3. Finding Hidden Joseon within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City Lee Jae-seong: Seunghee noona, who told us stories centered on the Joseon women who lived in the Forbidden City!

Seunghee noona, who told us stories centered on the Joseon women who lived in the Forbidden City! Somehow, the story sounded like a fairy tale, and it was really fun.

I was able to hear in detail about the joys and sorrows of the lives of Joseon people due to politics in the Forbidden City, which made me realize how international politics affects the lives of individuals.

which made me realize how international politics affects the lives of individuals.

Moreover, when Seunghee noona told me that the Forbidden City was not twice the size of Gyeongbok Palace, I was surprised that the scale difference was smaller than I expected.

when Seunghee noona told me that the Forbidden City was not twice the size of Gyeongbok Palace, I was surprised that the scale difference was smaller than I expected.

I was surprised that the scale difference was smaller than I expected.

The fun and passionate scene of Sarangbang (Love Room) Group 4, where Q&A and discussions were held.

Bibliography: Park Young-gyu. 2009. *Hwangwan and Gungnyeo* [Eunuchs and Palace Women]. Seoul: Woongjin Knowledge House. The Official Website of the Palace Museum, Beijing. http://www.dpm.org.cn/shtml/1/@/9057.html (Accessed: December 10, 2014). History Special. 2014. “People Who Made History - The Forbidden City.” Parts 1 & 2.

http://www.dpm.org.cn/shtml/1/@/9057.html (Accessed: December 10, 2014). History Special. 2014. “People Who Made History - The Forbidden City.” Parts 1 & 2.

Jeong Gu-seon. 2002. *The History of Our Women Taken to China: Gongnyeo* [Tribute Women]. Seoul: Gukhakjaryowon.

Hakjaryowon.

Annals of the Joseon Dynasty. “Sejong Year 6, October 17: A envoy reports that Lady Han, who was chosen to go to China, committed suicide before the acting Emperor.” National Institute of Korean History.

National Institute of Korean History. http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_10610017_002 (Accessed: November 30, 2014).

──────. “Sejong Year 7, April 29: The Ministry of Personnel's Vice Minister Bong Yeo is sent to escort back women.” National Institute of Korean History. http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_11704029_004 (Accessed: November 30, 2014).

http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_11704029_004 (Accessed: November 30, 2014).

──────. “Sejong Year 17, April 26: Envoy Lee Chung arrives with the maiden servants Jongbi, Changabi, and Jipchabi.” National Institute of Korean History. http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_11704026_002 (Accessed: November 30, 2014).

http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_11704026_002 (Accessed: November 30, 2014).

──────. “Sejong Year 17, April 26: Maiden servant Kim Heuk recalls her interactions with the Empress Dowager.” http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_11704026_005 (Accessed: November 30, 2014). National Institute of Korean History.

(Accessed: November 30, 2014). National Institute of Korean History.

National Institute of Korean History.

──────. “Sejong Year 17, April 28: Discuss the envoy's affairs with Hwang Hui, the Director of the Seungmunwon, and others.” http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_11704028_001 3. Finding Hidden Joseon within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City

http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_11704028_001 3. Finding Hidden Joseon within the Forbidden City: The Forbidden City

(Accessed: November 30, 2014). National Institute of Korean History.

National Institute of Korean History. ──────. “Sejong Year 17, May 14: Send off the food for Lady Han's wet nurse Kim Heuk and others.”

National Institute of Korean History. http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kda_11705014_004 (Accessed: November 30, 2014).

──────. “Taejong Year 14, September 19: Won Min-saeng returns from the capital and reports the Emperor's instructions regarding the murder case of Kwon Bi.” National Institute of Korean History. http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kca_11409019_001 (Accessed: November 30, 2014).

National Institute of Korean History. http://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kca_11409019_001 (Accessed: November 30, 2014).

Jin Byung-pal. 2002. *Walking Through the Forbidden City and Seeing China*. Seoul: Cheongnyeonjeongsin.

Jean-Paul Desroches, Dominique Morel. 1999. *The Forbidden City: The Imperial City*. Translated by Kim Ju-kyung. Seoul: Sigongsa.

Seoul: Sigongsa.

Korea Creative Content Agency (KOCCA) Culture Content Dot Com Official Website. http://culturecontent.kr/main.do (Accessed: December 10, 2014).

http://culturecontent.kr/main.do (Accessed: December 10, 2014). Hwang Renda. 2013. *The Colors of China*. Translated by Cho Seong-woong. Seoul: Studio Camel.

CCTV. 2013. “The Forbidden City.” http://kr.cntv.cn/20130910/103154.shtml (Accessed: December 10, 2014).

December 10, 2014).

Kang Sun-won. 1997. "A Study on the 'Chaeyeo' of the Joseon Dynasty in the Ming and Qing Palaces." *Palace Museum Journal*

Vol. 4: 79-89.

Jang

Singing of Glorious and Tragic Years

Yuanmingyuan (圆明园)

Kim Yu-jeong

Seoul National University: Let's Know This Before You Go

◆ Location: No. [Street Number], Tsinghua West Road, Haidian District, Beijing ◆ Opening Hours: Winter hours are until [Time].

◆ Closed: Open all year round.

◆ Admission Fee: Full admission ticket [Amount] Yuan (includes entrance to the model hall); Admission ticket [Amount] Yuan (does not include the Western Mansions).

Model hall ticket [Amount] Yuan, Sightseeing car [Amount] Yuan (purchase at a separate ticket office within Yuanmingyuan; fares may vary depending on travel distance, and from the southern boundary of Changchun Garden to the Western Mansions area, it is [Amount] Yuan per person). ◆ Getting There: Take Subway Line 4 to Wudaokou (五道口) Station, then take Bus No. [Bus Number] to Yuanmingyuan (圓明園) stop. The most important preparations for a trip or survey are strong legs and an imagination that goes beyond what can be seen. Yuanmingyuan, which we headed to after a [Number]-minute drive from the Forbidden City, is a place where both of these preparations are needed more than ever. The keyword that connects the three places visited on the second day of our survey—the Forbidden City, Yuanmingyuan, and the Summer Palace—is perhaps not grandeur, but immensity. A considerable amount of physical stamina is required to leisurely explore these three places, which overwhelm travelers with their vast scale. While traveling by car, we were already aware of Yuanmingyuan's size and were determined to proceed. After a hearty meal, including a mountain of shaved ice for dessert, we decided to embark on a full-scale survey of Yuanmingyuan. Singing of Glorious and Tragic Years: Yuanmingyuan, followed by a mountain of shaved ice for dessert.

Fees may vary, and from the southern boundary of Changchun Garden to the Western Mansions area, it is ¥ per person. ◆Getting there: Take Subway Line 4 to Wudaokou Station, then take Bus No. to Yuanmingyuan Garden Station. I believe the most important preparations for travel or exploration are strong legs and imagination that goes beyond what is visible. The Yuanmingyuan Garden, to which we headed by car after leaving the Forbidden City, is a place where these two preparations are more necessary than ever. The common keyword connecting the Forbidden City, Yuanmingyuan Garden, and the Summer Palace, which decorated the second day of our exploration, is not grandeur, but rather immensity. The sheer scale of these three places, which overwhelm travelers with their vastness, requires considerable physical stamina to explore thoroughly. While traveling by car, we were already aware of the immense size of Yuanmingyuan Garden and decided to proceed with our exploration after a hearty lunch and a substantial serving of shaved ice for dessert. Singing of Heaven's Glory and Tragedy: Yuanmingyuan Garden

From the southern end to the northern end of Yuanmingyuan

In addition to its grandeur, the second day's itinerary for all three locations is connected by the fact that they are places where glory and tragedy coexist. In the process of the late 19th century's modern international political order clashing fiercely with East Asia's traditional hierarchical order, the Qing Dynasty, which was the center of the hierarchy, was ultimately defeated. Within this context, the splendor of these three places underwent a historical transformation into tragedy. In particular, Yuanmingyuan, as its current state shows, is a place that perfectly preserves the profound pain of the late 19th century's harsh reality, to the extent that Chinese people themselves consider it a symbol of national humiliation. Through two major fires and subsequent destruction and plunder, Yuanmingyuan has lost its former splendor. We aim to listen to the story that Yuanmingyuan seeks to tell us. To do this, as mentioned earlier, requires the work of constantly imagining while walking with strong legs. Unlike other places, the encounter with Yuanmingyuan takes place amidst ruins that perfectly contain the traces of destruction and plunder, not its original complete form. Therefore, without imagining the past, the moment of destruction, and the present simultaneously, it is difficult to fully appreciate the story of Yuanmingyuan.

This year marks the [Number]th anniversary of Yuanmingyuan's destruction during the Second Opium War. Yuanmingyuan, which began as a villa bestowed by Emperor Kangxi upon his fourth son, Yinzhen (later Emperor Yongzheng), in [Year], was burned down by the Anglo-French allied forces in [Year]. For approximately [Number] years, it served as an imperial garden and a center of court life, where Qing emperors spent a significant portion of their time. Having been embellished by successive Qing emperors, Yuanmingyuan was regarded as the "garden of gardens." However, Yuanmingyuan, which has existed in its destroyed state for as long as it has been preserved in its complete form, showcases the diverse aspects of Chinese history. Recently, there have been discussions within China about the restoration of the destroyed Yuanmingyuan, including attempts to recover plundered cultural artifacts, indicating that it is not merely a relic lost to history but a living space that continues to breathe today.

Here, Yuanmingyuan refers to Yuanmingyuan, Qichun Garden (綺春園), and Changchun Garden (長春園).

Yuanmingyuan evolved from the time of Emperor Kangxi to Emperor Qianlong over approximately [Number] years, with two more gardens being added to one garden, and as can be seen from the map, it encompasses a considerably large area. Therefore, it is advisable to keep in mind which scenic area to focus on while touring. The Western Mansions scenic area, which was the focus of this survey, is located in the northern part of Changchun Garden. Please refer to the Yuanmingyuan tourist map in the photo below for detailed information. Singing of Glorious and Tragic Years: Yuanmingyuan In this survey, we decided to pay particular attention to the Western Mansions ruins area (西洋楼遗址区). Following the route indicated on the Yuanmingyuan tourist map in the photo below, we strolled through Yuanmingyuan, catching glimpses of its former appearance as an imperial garden, which possessed a charm distinct from the Forbidden City and the Summer Palace.

The tourist map next to the South Gate ticket office. The red line on the map indicates the survey route.

Qichun Garden (绮春园) Upon entering through the South Gate, located at the very bottom, we proceeded north along the path. At the junction of Changchun Garden (长春园) and Qichun Garden, we took the sightseeing car, which we affectionately called the "elephant train," and sped along the straight avenue to the Western Mansions area at the northernmost part of Changchun Garden. As can be seen on the map, the journey from the southernmost point to the northernmost Western Mansions area is a considerable distance, so one must be mentally prepared before setting off. However, the journey through Yuanmingyuan, with its winding waterways and the refreshing ride on the sightseeing car along the wide avenue, proceeded smoothly. An additional fee is required to enter the Western Mansions area, beyond the Yuanmingyuan entrance fee, indicating that the Western Mansions is a place worth special attention within the vast Yuanmingyuan.

At the entrance to the Western Mansions: The Spread of Architecture and the Encounter of East and West

Upon arriving at our destination, the Western Mansions area, we were greeted by an exotic landscape unlike any other. The presence of Western-style buildings within a Chinese setting is unique, but it is understandable to question why one would pay an additional [Amount] Yuan to visit not intact buildings but piles of ruins, unlike typical tourist attractions. Several questions arose simultaneously in the unusual Western Mansions area of Yuanmingyuan, and our primary objective for this survey was to investigate the reasons why Yuanmingyuan, once considered the finest imperial garden in China, could have been so tragically destroyed. To find the answer, we first need to examine why Emperor Qianlong in the [Century] decided to build Western-style buildings within the imperial garden. We need to fully understand the irony of Yuanmingyuan, which housed Western architecture, being destroyed by Westerners, and the inner thoughts of the Chinese people in the [Century] who contemplated such ruins. Yuanmingyuan, a place that embodies both splendor and devastation, is an ideal space for recalling and reflecting on the significant moments in Chinese history from the [Century] to the present. We delved deeper into the Western Mansions area with many thoughts about what kind of China we could discover amidst the ruins.

In front of the Yuanmingyuan Overview Map

Architecture, I believe, is a physical construct that embodies the totality of the lifestyle of the people who created it. Therefore, the transmission of architectural styles to other regions carries a different significance than mere trade of goods or human movement. Exchange and transmission between different cultures can occur at various levels. Specifically, regarding architecture, a phenomenon that can occur in a relatively short period is the emergence of new architectural styles as people who have settled in a foreign country build structures in the manner of their homeland. However, for whatever reason, when foreigners, as well as natives, begin to adopt and build in a newly emerged architectural style, a more profound transmission or a kind of cultural transformation may occur. Such changes can be seen as a process where the lifestyles or values of other cultures, embodied in architectural styles, penetrate more deeply into the consciousness of the people who receive them. The extensive overseas expansion of European countries after the [Century] stimulated exchange between Asia and Europe, sparking curiosity and longing for different civilizations. The unique phenomenon of architectural transmission that occurred amidst the encounter of East and West can be seen as the result of intense contemplation on how to perceive and accept the 'other,' going beyond the mere collection of a few items out of curiosity. It involves a comprehensive rethinking of everything, from the way space is constructed through new experiments, abandoning existing architectural styles, to the judgment of beauty. In particular, the appearance of Western-style buildings in Yuanmingyuan, China's foremost imperial garden, makes us wonder if it was not only the West that sought the 'other' but also the East that yearned for it. The process of tracing the transmission of architectural styles and the fusion of East and West, centered around Emperor Qianlong and Giuseppe Castiglione in the space of Yuanmingyuan, is as fascinating a subject as revisiting the tragic end of Yuanmingyuan's destruction by the West. Perhaps tracing the origins from the very beginning is a necessary task to infer the causes of the tragedy. We decided to begin the story of Yuanmingyuan from here.

East-West exchange occurred in various forms beyond trade centered on maritime routes in the [Century]. In ancient times, trade flourished along the land routes known as the Silk Road, and cultural artifacts from East and West were exchanged through various paths. However, the focus on the East-West encounter in the [Century] is significant because it marked a more comprehensive encounter that laid the foundation for globalization in the [Century]. That is, it signifies that the basis for the world to be united under a single civilizational standard was laid, not merely as trading partners, but through a deeper fusion of each other's civilizations and cultures. However, the process of this civilizational standard being unified into the Western modern standard is something we

can see.

On the last day of our survey, at the Beijing Museum of History, we found the series *Stories of Sino-Foreign Cultural Exchange* (《中外文化交流故事丛书》), which traces exchanges between China and other cultures since the Silk Road. As one of these, the story of the Western painter Castiglione (郎世宁), who was in the Forbidden City, is covered in one volume. Out of a total of [Number] volumes, Castiglione's story accounts for [Number] volumes, while one volume covers the story of Matteo Ricci's arrival in China in the [Century], and the last volume deals with modern history under the title '[Title]'. The publication of such a series and the overall flow of the series leading to China in the world suggest that China is consistently contemplating how to position itself in terms of East-West exchange and China's place in the world. The ruins of Yuanmingyuan contain the time span from the late [Century] to the early [Century]. Guo Moruo argues that the advanced Chinese goods such as silk and ceramics exported to the West in the [Century] provided new artistic stimulation to Europeans. Just as Emperor Qianlong collected precious Western items brought through Guangzhou, Queen Mary of England and Louis XIV of France also collected Chinese ceramics, and prominent European nobles also ordered ceramics with their family crests, following the example of the royal families. Guo Moruo

China's soft silk and elegant ceramics stimulated the aesthetic sensibilities of Westerners, serving as a catalyst for the burgeoning imagination of European Enlightenment thinkers. European artists, through Chinese ceramics, found an escape from the somber Baroque style of Louis XIV's era and created the romantic Rococo art style. The decorative techniques of Chinese ceramics constantly changed in line with international market trends. During the [Period] period, export ceramics underwent several transformations, from Baroque to Rococo, and then to English, French, Greek, and Roman styles. Guo Moruo

Of course, it is difficult to argue that Chinese ceramics or silk had an absolute and dominant influence on the development of the Rococo style, but it is a fact that full-scale East-West encounters and interactions occurred through cultural exchange. In this context, the appearance of Western-style architecture in Yuanmingyuan, a corner of Beijing, the center of the imperial order, which was not seen in other historical Chinese contexts, is a phenomenon worth noting. Conversely, there were also cases where Chinese architectural styles were transmitted to the West. Around the same period, a similar case occurred in Sweden, involving a special space called a palace. According to the records of Zhang Deying (張德彝), an interpreter who accompanied the Qing envoy to Europe in the [Century], the Chinese-style room at a royal villa in the suburbs of Stockholm, Sweden, surprised the envoy, making them feel as if they had returned home. The items decorating the room were all from Guangzhou. Regarding this, Guo Moruo evaluates this building, constructed as a birthday gift for the queen in [Year], as not only incorporating Cantonese Lingnan scenery in its architectural style and interior decoration but also as a microcosm reflecting the influence of Chinese culture on European courts. Guo Moruo

China's soft silk and elegant ceramics stimulated Western aesthetics, serving as a catalyst for the burgeoning imagination of European Enlightenment thinkers.

European artists, through Chinese ceramics, found an escape from the somber Baroque style of Louis XIV's era and created the romantic Rococo art style.

The decorative techniques of Chinese ceramics constantly changed in line with international market trends.

During the [Period] period, export ceramics underwent several transformations, from Baroque to Rococo, and then to English, French, Greek, and Roman styles.

Guo Moruo

In this context, the appearance of Western-style architecture in Yuanmingyuan, a corner of Beijing, the center of the imperial order, which was not seen in other historical Chinese contexts, is a phenomenon worth noting.

Conversely, there were also cases where Chinese architectural styles were transmitted to the West. Around the same period, a similar case occurred in Sweden, involving a special space called a palace.

According to the records of Zhang Deying (張德彝), an interpreter who accompanied the Qing envoy to Europe in the [Century], the Chinese-style room at a royal villa in the suburbs of Stockholm, Sweden, surprised the envoy, making them feel as if they had returned home. The items decorating the room were all from Guangzhou. Regarding this, Guo Moruo evaluates this building, constructed as a birthday gift for the queen in [Year], as not only incorporating Cantonese Lingnan scenery in its architectural style and interior decoration but also as a microcosm reflecting the influence of Chinese culture on European courts. Guo Moruo

The Chinese Pavilion building, with its distinctly different atmosphere from the other buildings in Drottningholm Palace, features red walls, a tiered roof (圓攢尖頂, a conical traditional Chinese architectural roof style), and eaves reminiscent of Chinese buildings. Huang Renda evaluates red (紅色) as a color that permeates all aspects of Chinese history, forming a deep foundation for Chinese culture, and as a color symbolizing auspicious signs, joy, excitement, and passion for the Chinese people. As can be inferred from the current Chinese national flag, the Five-Starred Red Flag (五星紅旗), red is the optimal color to evoke China. By presenting this palace, a fusion of European Rococo style and Chinese style in a Swedish context, in Beijing, we aim to consider which fusion method was more refined. Although only ruins remain today, comparing the current ruins with the surviving paintings of Yuanmingyuan allows us to imagine the past, and it seems that Yuanmingyuan's Western Mansions represented a more refined fusion. Beyond mere imitation, the Yuanmingyuan Western Mansions, built based on Western designs and blueprints, centered around people who understood both the West and China, were undoubtedly of a higher caliber than the Swedish example created around the same period.

Imagining from the Ruins of the Western Mansions

Yuanmingyuan falls under the category of "gardens" (园林) among Chinese ancient architecture classifications, which can be simply understood as gardens. A garden is an artificially landscaped or created natural environment, with a wide variety of forms. These include large-scale scenic areas, expansive parks, and imperial gardens, down to private gardens within a single household, or even gardens created in a corner of a house or in front of a palace by placing a few rocks, digging a pond, and planting trees and flowers in between (Lou Qingxi). Singing of Glorious and Tragic Years: Yuanmingyuan

Yuanmingyuan, acclaimed as the "Garden of Ten Thousand Gardens" (萬園之園), boasted a considerable scale among imperial gardens throughout history. Lou Qingxi points out that Emperor Qianlong, who achieved the zenith of the Qing Dynasty, had a strong sense of ambition and was also fond of leisure. He embarked on extensive civil engineering projects upon returning to Beijing after six tours of Jiangnan, witnessing the beautiful scenery of various regions, making the construction of gardens a top priority. Lou Qingxi

In particular, the theme of Yuanmingyuan's landscaping was water, which led to the incorporation of landscapes from various famous Jiangnan scenic spots within Yuanmingyuan. This reminds us of the long scroll painting depicting Emperor Qianlong's tour of Jiangnan, which we saw at the National Museum on the first day of our survey.

Yuanmingyuan began its construction in the [Year] of Emperor Kangxi, when it was bestowed upon his fourth son, the future Emperor Yongzheng. Subsequently, over nearly [Number] years, through the reigns of [Number] emperors, the garden formed during Emperor Yongzheng's reign

and the additions made during Emperor Qianlong's reign—Changchun Garden and Qichun Garden—totaling [Number] different scenic areas, creating a large-scale imperial garden. Lou Qingxi states that China's Five Sacred Mountains (五嶽)—Mount Tai in Shandong, Mount Hua in Shaanxi, Mount Heng in Hunan, Mount Heng in Shanxi, and Mount Song in Henan—along with Mount Fo (佛山) in Guangdong, Mount Wutai in Shanxi, Mount Emei in Sichuan, Mount Putuo in Zhejiang, and Mount Jiuhua in Anhui, are famous scenic garden areas developed and managed over many dynasties. On the other hand, the Summer Resort in Chengde, and Beihai, Xiangshan, Yuanmingyuan, and the Summer Palace in Beijing are well-known imperial gardens, while places like Suzhou, Yangzhou, and Hangzhou in Jiangnan have numerous private gardens. Suzhou's Humble Administrator's Garden (拙政园) and Lingering Garden (留园), considered among China's top ten gardens, are also examples of this. It was established as a garden. Lou Qingxi The total area of various landscape buildings such as pavilions, terraces, and halls within Yuanmingyuan is [Number] square meters, which is [Number] times larger than the total architectural area of the Forbidden City. In addition to adopting the excellence of imperial architectural styles throughout the ages, it not only broke free from the constraints of imperial norms in its planar layout, exterior modeling, and combination of building clusters, but also adopted diverse and creative architectural styles, and even introduced architectural styles rarely found in either southern or northern China. Zhang Jiasheng One of these diverse architectural styles is the Western-style landscape architecture built north of Changchun Garden, which was popularly known as the "Western Mansions" and is still called by this name today. Given that it was a completely new aesthetic in architectural style, not a traditional one, and was built in an imperial garden that gathered the world's most beautiful landscapes, it is possible that the Qing emperor at the time, especially Emperor Qianlong, was fascinated by Western architecture. Although the Western Mansions area accounts for only [Fraction] of the total area of Yuanmingyuan, it is a noteworthy site as the first attempt at Western-style landscape architecture in China and as a symbol of East-West exchange.

The Western Mansions scenic area consists of [Number] buildings and gardens, including Haiqu Garden (諧趣園), Xianfa Bridge (線法橋), Wanhua Array (萬花陣), Yangque Cage (養雀籠), Fangwai Pavilion (方外觀), Hai'an Hall (海晏堂), Yuanying Pavilion (遠瀛觀), Dashui Method (大水法), Guanshui Method (觀水法), and Xianfa Wall (線法墻). Zhang Jiasheng Among these, Haiqu Garden (諧奇趣), Hai'an Hall, and Dashui Method were known as "Western water features" (水法) by people at the time and were representative landscapes of the Western Mansions. The architectural plan for the Western Mansions was established in the [Year] of Emperor Qianlong, and the basic framework was completed in the [Year] of Emperor Qianlong. Singing of Glorious and Tragic Years: Yuanmingyuan The architecture followed the Baroque style of the late Renaissance, designed by Western missionaries, but the garden design and decoration incorporated a considerable amount of traditional Chinese techniques. We tried to imagine the former appearance of Yuanmingyuan by holding the Yuanmingyuan paintings obtained from the library and comparing them with the current ruins. By comparing the map and the paintings, we found that the buildings and structures were much more densely arranged than we had imagined, and clues indicating the fusion of East and West could be found in the remaining ruins.

The building in the back has completely collapsed, and only the remnants of the front fountain remain. The famous twelve animal head sculptures have been restored on one side of the Western Mansions.

restored.

What was interesting was that as we compared the Yuanmingyuan paintings with the current site and explained them, even the Chinese visitors showed considerable interest. Although they couldn't understand Korean, they occasionally looked closely at the paintings I was holding or asked something in Chinese. While these actions indicate the Chinese people's interest in Yuanmingyuan, it was also amusing to be in the paradoxical situation of listening to the explanations from our team from Korea. The architectural structures worth noting in the Western Mansions area are three: Hai'an Hall, Dashui Method, and Wanhua Array. Hai'an Hall is the largest palace within the Western Mansions and, fittingly for Yuanmingyuan's theme of water, it featured a pond and magnificent fountains, attracting attention. The twelve animal head sculptures, which recently became a topic of discussion when related cultural artifacts appeared at a famous auction house, are part of this fountain. The twelve animal head sculptures surrounded a large pond next to the Hai'an Hall's foundation, and they are said to have spouted water once every hour according to the time. Zhang Jiasheng evaluates the design choice of using animal head sculptures instead of Western nude statues as a masterpiece of East-West fusion. The idea of creating a type of water clock by embodying the twelve zodiac animals corresponding to the time is indeed brilliant. Among these twelve animal head sculptures, after the heads of the rat and rabbit appeared at Christie's auction house, the tiger, monkey, and ox head statues were purchased by China Poly Group (中国保利集团), while the remaining dragon, snake, sheep, and chicken heads have not yet been located. Zhang Jiasheng

The importance of the twelve animal head sculptures lies not only in their artistic value but also in the fact that their appearance brought the issue of returning looted cultural artifacts within China to the forefront. Yi Suhao, the representative of Poly Group, which purchased the artifacts despite their high price, emphasized that it is not a matter of money but of China's dignity, stating that the cultural artifacts that appear at auction must be purchased and passed down to future generations so that they do not forget the nation's humiliation. Zhang Jiasheng Singing of Glorious and Tragic Years: Yuanmingyuan

We were able to confirm the site of the Western-style buildings and fountains. What kind of spectacle would have unfolded when the fountains were actually operating?

would unfold?

During the auctions of Hong Kong Christie's and Sotheby's in [year], large-scale protests occurred in Hong Kong. Subsequently, debates concerning the repatriation of looted cultural artifacts intensified both within and outside China. Interest has been growing in numerous looted cultural artifacts beyond those taken from the Old Summer Palace. The Chinese government, in particular, has shown interest and, in [year], signed the "Convention on the International Unification of Private Law Concerning the Return of Cultural Property." China declared that it possesses the right to trace and reclaim historically looted artifacts. It also protested the Hong Kong Christie's and Sotheby's auctions held in [year]. The issue of repatriating looted cultural artifacts will be raised as one of the important tasks that China must undertake as part of its ongoing efforts to consolidate its national history through various projects. This is not merely about reclaiming cultural artifacts; it is closely linked to restoring China's wounded national pride and its emergence from being the center of Asia to becoming the center of the world. How China approaches this issue...

...is perhaps tied to how China in the [century] overcomes the [century] and [century] and presents a new model.

The water clock was the most magnificent water feature in the Western Mansions. The Emperor would observe the entire water feature in operation from the opposite side, where the water clock was located. British envoy Macartney and Dutch envoy Titsingh also visited this place to observe the water clock. According to legend, when all the water clocks were operating, the sound of the water was like an avalanche, audible from several li away, and people near the water clocks had to communicate using hand and foot signals. A detailed look at the painting of the Western Mansions by Zhang Jiasheng reveals that the water clock had an external appearance similar to a Buddhist stupa. Unfortunately, only the foundation of the water clock remains, and its appearance cannot be fully recovered. However, the unique harmony of a pagoda in front of a Western-style building likely further highlighted the sophisticated fusion of the Western Mansions in the Old Summer Palace. I imagine...

The Maze Garden was built in imitation of European mazes. During the Mid-Autumn Festival, the Emperor would sit in the pavilion at the center of the garden, while court ladies, holding lotus flowers adorned with yellow silk, would play a game of finding their way through the maze. The court lady who first found the shortcut and reached the Emperor was rewarded. In accordance with this custom, the Maze Garden was also called the Yellow Flower Maze (黃花陳) or the Day of Glory and Tragedy: The Yellow Flower Lantern (黃花燈) of the Old Summer Palace. Zhang Jiasheng, we decided to try and find our way through this Maze Garden. However, as pointed out by Zou...

...unlike the mazes we are familiar with, the mission of the Old Summer Palace maze is not to go from the start to the end, but to quickly reach the central pavilion. This reflects the Chinese mindset of converging towards the center rather than the logic of moving from end to end, embedded within Western architecture. The Maze Garden is a prime example of how physical form and thought processes can merge. While wandering through the Maze Garden, we learned a life lesson: the closer we tried to get to the center, the further we moved away. To solve this complex problem, we must step back as far as possible and delve into the crucial moment.

The central pavilion of the Maze Garden

A Concerto of Encounters and Interactions, Resonating from the Western Mansions

To understand how architectural styles could be transmitted and fused between East and West, we need to go back to the Qianlong Emperor's reign during the Qing Dynasty, when the Western Mansions were constructed. First, by examining how China and the West encountered each other, we can contemplate how the Qianlong Emperor interacted with Western culture. Then, through the encounter with Castiglione, who was responsible for the design of the Western Mansions, we can imagine the stage of East-West fusion.

Encounter with the West: The Qianlong Emperor's Canton System Policy

The [century] was a period when various Western nations actively advanced into East Asia, not just the New World, through maritime routes, seeking to secure profits through trade and expand their territories. At that time, following Emperor Kangxi's maritime prohibition policy, ships from European countries frequently docked at major ports along China's eastern coast. Britain, in particular, sought to gain an advantage in trade with China by leveraging the East India Company, an organization managing trade. The description by Hunter, an individual stationed at the American consulate in Guangzhou, in "Guangzhou Fan Gui Lu" (Record of Foreigners in Guangzhou) allows us to visualize such scenes. The arrival of the British fleet at Huangpu Port in Guangzhou was a spectacular sight.

The British fleet arrived at Huangpu Port in Guangzhou, presenting a magnificent spectacle.

A fleet of about [number] luxurious large ships arrived.

This fleet formed an impressive formation and waited until the cargo was loaded.

An orchestra played on board, entertaining the guests, and this sound attracted many Chinese onlookers.

Li Guorong

However, this general policy of maritime prohibition did not last long. After the prosperous reign of Emperor Qianlong in [year], the policy of "One-Port Trade" (一口通商) was announced, restricting ports to Guangdong and stipulating that Western ships could only dock and trade in Guangzhou. Thus, all Sino-Western trade was concentrated in Guangzhou, and three other customs houses were closed. Li Guorong describes Qianlong's attitude as stern and inexplicably resolute. It remains unclear why, at a time when trade with the West was flourishing, all customs houses except Yuehai Guan were suddenly closed. We need to exercise our imagination regarding Qianlong's perspective on and approach to the West, considering this comprehensive approach to One-Port Trade. It is vaguely speculated that he may have thought that while acknowledging the novelty and beauty of Western culture, the Emperor of China, as the center of the world, must be able to exercise complete control over it. After the implementation of Qianlong's One-Port Trade policy, the foreign trading houses in Guangzhou and the Western Mansions in the Old Summer Palace, the only channels for trade with the West, were the first Western-style buildings introduced to China. While the trading houses hold significance as the first buildings directly used by foreigners, they are not unique to China's transmission, similar to Dejima in Nagasaki, Japan, which consisted of the minimum necessary structures for foreigners to reside. However, the Old Summer Palace is noteworthy because, as imperial architecture, it held significant political importance, with restricted access not only for foreigners but even for ordinary Chinese citizens. It is believed that Qianlong's intention in building the Western Mansions in one part of the Old Summer Palace, while investing substantial financial resources to purchase precious Western goods, was clearly connected to his desire to strictly prevent foreigners from entering the interior.

Castiglione Becomes Lang Shining. The Italian Giuseppe Castiglione arrived at the Forbidden City in [year], the year Emperor Kangxi celebrated his [number]th birthday. Born in Milan, Castiglione became a Jesuit in [year] and received training as a painter in Genoa during his novitiate. When a report reached Beijing about the arrival of an Italian missionary at the Guangzhou trading house, Emperor Kangxi ordered him to be brought to Beijing. Li Guorong

Upon arriving in Beijing, Castiglione was reborn as a Chinese painter named Lang Shining (郎世寧). We can see evidence of his considerable efforts to learn Chinese and adapt to Chinese life in Guangzhou and Beijing, and changing his name to a Chinese one can be seen as part of these efforts. He appears to have adapted quickly to Chinese etiquette, and his ability to survive as a court painter, serving three emperors—Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong—demonstrates his successful transformation into Lang Shining.

Even before coming to China, Castiglione was skilled in Renaissance or Baroque oil painting. This Western style of painting was rarely seen in China at the time and captivated the Chinese people with its vivid depiction of subjects through chiaroscuro. However, to survive as a painter in the imperial court, a certain degree of adaptation to Chinese methods was necessary, rather than adhering strictly to Western styles. Castiglione's works exhibit a harmonious blend of Chinese and Western techniques. Having produced a considerable number of works, Castiglione appears to have been quite successful in this endeavor. The fact that he painted numerous portraits of Emperor Qianlong suggests that he was a figure of considerable interest and favor at the time. The "Emperor Qianlong's Grand Review" (乾隆皇帝大閱圖) housed in the Palace Museum in Beijing is arguably Castiglione's, or rather Lang Shining's, masterpiece and represents the pinnacle of his successful transformation.

According to Li Guorong, Castiglione painted many pictures favored by the Emperor in the court and meticulously recorded important court events in a detailed Western style. The "Campaigns in the Western Regions" (平定西域戰圖), painted by him and four other artists, including the French painter Attiret, is considered a prime example of this style. Li Guorong. However, what is even more astonishing than the realistic depiction in this painting is Castiglione's suggestion. The Qing government, to commemorate the suppression of the Dzungar rebellion in the Xinjiang region in [year], commissioned a painting of [width] width. In [year], Castiglione proposed to Emperor Qianlong that the painting be sent to France to be made into an intricate copperplate engraving to enhance its realism. The "Pact for the Production of Copperplate Engravings of the Campaigns in the Western Regions" (平定西域戰圖銅版製作條約書), signed by the Guangzhou representative and the representative of the French East India Company in [year], clearly illustrates this surprising proposal. This pact stipulated that the trading company would pay [number] taels of silver as an initial fee for the copperplate production, cover additional expenses later, and that the work must be carried out with exceptional precision as it was a project ordered by the Emperor. According to records, to guard against any unforeseen accidents, the copperplates were sent to Paris on separate ships.

...is considered a prime example of this style. Li Guorong. However, what is even more astonishing than the realistic depiction in this painting is Castiglione's suggestion. The Qing government, to commemorate the suppression of the Dzungar rebellion in the Xinjiang region in [year], commissioned a painting of [width] width. In [year], Castiglione proposed to Emperor Qianlong that the painting be sent to France to be made into an intricate copperplate engraving to enhance its realism. The "Pact for the Production of Copperplate Engravings of the Campaigns in the Western Regions" (平定西域戰圖銅版製作條約書), signed by the Guangzhou representative and the representative of the French East India Company in [year], clearly illustrates this surprising proposal. This pact stipulated that the trading company would pay [number] taels of silver as an initial fee for the copperplate production, cover additional expenses later, and that the work must be carried out with exceptional precision as it was a project ordered by the Emperor. According to records, to guard against any unforeseen accidents, the copperplates were sent to Paris on separate ships.

Castiglione passed away in Beijing without seeing the completed copperplates, but his proposal, which facilitated international artistic exchange that was unimaginable or difficult to implement at the time, is certainly worth remembering for a long time.

Interestingly, it is evident that attention is being paid to figures like Lang Shining within China as well. On the last day of our visit, we discovered a book at the Capital Museum, and just before departing for the trip, we coincidentally watched a Chinese drama about the Qianlong era that featured a Western court painter. For anyone interested in Chinese dramas, the remake of "My Fair Princess" (還珠格格), titled "New My Fair Princess" (新還珠格格), featured a Western court painter who was not present in the original, creating new episodes and establishing himself as an important character. While the exact circumstances behind the inclusion of this new character in the remake are unknown, it undeniably proves that the status of Western painters in the Qing Dynasty has risen, or that interest in them is steadily increasing, as evidenced by their appearance in dramas.

Qianlong Orders the Construction of a Western-Style Garden

It is presumed that Emperor Qianlong's initial interest in Western architecture began in the [century] through paintings of Western palaces brought into China by Jesuit missionaries and through trade.

This interest in the West led Qianlong to commission Lang Shining to design a Western-style garden within the Old Summer Palace. According to "A Comprehensive History of China," Qianlong was able to issue such an order because he not only had an interest in the West but also actively embraced and engaged with it. Of course, this engagement was not a radical transformation like Japan's Meiji Restoration in the [century], which completely changed the nation's foundation by emulating the West. It is also possible that he wanted to show off that China could build equally beautiful palaces. However, it is clear that in the [century], there was an attempt to understand and incorporate elements of other civilizations into one's own world, rather than rejecting them outright. The Western Mansions area, built in the northern corner of the Garden of Eternal Spring, was completed around [year], taking approximately [number] years.

Examining various documents related to the Western Mansions in the Old Summer Palace, we frequently find references to the Palace of Versailles. To find the answer as to why Versailles specifically, we must trace back to the stories of Emperor Kangxi and Louis XIV. Li Guorong points out the differences between Britain and France and highly regards the exchange between Emperor Kangxi and Louis XIV, who were both interested in Western affairs.

France presented a different demeanor than Britain in its trade with China. The French, valuing romance and sentimentality, showed deep interest in Chinese culture. However, the British were pragmatic and emphasized material aspects, showing interest only in Chinese products. Reflecting on this difference...

France displayed a demeanor quite different from Britain in its trade with China.

The French valued romance and sentimentality, showing deep interest in Chinese culture.

However, the British were pragmatic and emphasized material aspects, showing interest only in Chinese products.

This difference is worth considering. At the time, France's trade volume with China was not large.

However, it was the French who, with a pioneering spirit of East-West cultural exchange, introduced authentic Chinese culture to Europe. Some Western scholars believe that the French East India Company was a political organization, not an economic one, for this reason. Li Guorong.

It appears to be true that France, much earlier than Britain, had a greater interest in Chinese and Eastern culture, evidenced by its appointment of trade representatives in Guangzhou. This interest, combined with Emperor Kangxi's fascination with Western artifacts, created a significant synergy, leading to exchanges between the two monarchs. In [year], Emperor Kangxi asked the French missionary Bouvet to convey to Louis XIV his request for more scientists to be sent to France. In [year], he inquired five times about news of Western ships in Guangzhou. Li Guorong.

Furthermore, the paintings of Chinese court attire drawn by Bouvet inspired a trend of imitating Chinese clothing at the French court. Emperor Kangxi gifted Louis XIV Chinese chess, which is now housed in the National Library of France, indicating a vibrant intellectual and cultural exchange. As there were no dedicated ships traveling between China and France at the time, Bouvet conveyed Emperor Kangxi's desire to see French ships to Louis XIV, urging him to hasten trade with China. The combination of Emperor Kangxi's coastal opening policy and Louis XIV's eastward expansion efforts led to the departure of the Amphitrite in [year]. This ship was laden with splendid gifts from Louis XIV to Emperor Kangxi, and the Chinese government even exempted all taxes for the ship solely because it was French-flagged, demonstrating the fervent mutual interest between the two nations. Li Guorong.

The French East India Company was a political organization, not an economic one.

This is why.

It is true that France, much earlier than Britain, had a greater interest in Chinese and Eastern culture, evidenced by its appointment of trade representatives in Guangzhou. This interest, combined with Emperor Kangxi's fascination with Western artifacts, created a significant synergy, leading to exchanges between the two monarchs. In [year], Emperor Kangxi asked the French missionary Bouvet to convey to Louis XIV his request for more scientists to be sent to France. In [year], he inquired five times about news of Western ships in Guangzhou. Li Guorong.

Furthermore, Li Guorong points out that the Garden of Eternal Spring in the Old Summer Palace, Kangxi's summer retreat, was a direct imitation of Louis XIV's palace. Also, in his thesis, Zheng Seok-beom, citing other works, states that Emperor Qianlong, intrigued by the copperplate illustrations in Gabriel Perrault's "Beautiful Buildings of France" and "Designs, Cross-sections, and Elevations of the Palace of Versailles," which included French cities, bosquets, and fountains, sent by Louis XIV, made an impromptu decision...

...leading to the construction of the Western Mansions north of the Garden of Eternal Spring starting in [year]. At this point, it can be concluded that the encounter between the Western Mansions of the Old Summer Palace and the Palace of Versailles had already occurred during the Kangxi era. Although various European countries visited since the [century], exchanges with France appear to have been particularly significant. As observed above, not only trade between merchants but also royal exchanges facilitated the movement of high-end art and luxury goods between the two countries. Furthermore, based on this foundation, imitation and fusion within the culture enjoyed by the royalty and upper classes could easily occur. The fact that the Italian Castiglione designed a French-style palace suggests that it was not merely his idea but a reflection of Emperor Qianlong's active preference, who was already familiar with French-style palaces. The Old Summer Palace Embraces the West, Only to Be Destroyed by the West: An Irony

Although various European countries visited since the [century], exchanges with France appear to have been particularly significant. As observed above, not only trade between merchants but also royal exchanges facilitated the movement of high-end art and luxury goods between the two countries. Furthermore, based on this foundation, imitation and fusion within the culture enjoyed by the royalty and upper classes could easily occur. The fact that the Italian Castiglione designed a French-style palace suggests that it was not merely his idea but a reflection of Emperor Qianlong's active preference, who was already familiar with French-style palaces.

The Old Summer Palace, Which Embraced the West, Was Destroyed by the West: An Irony

Destruction by the West: A Scene of Looting

The Old Summer Palace, the "palace among gardens," suffered a tragic fate, being completely destroyed by fire during the Second Opium War, burning for three days. Chinese intellectual Li Dazhao is said to have written the following poem after visiting the ruins of the Old Summer Palace. Zhang Jiasheng, standing at the edge of the Western Mansions area, we looked through the rubble and recited this poem, just as Li Dazhao did.

The Old Summer Palace was looted twice: 圓明兩度昆明劫

If the ancestors were to return, they could not bear to see it: 鶴化千年未忍歸

The mournful sound of the pipe does not cease: 一曲悲笳吹不盡

The remaining ashes drift in the evening glow: 殘灰猶共晩烟飛

The French writer Victor Hugo described the destruction of the Old Summer Palace as follows: "On a summer day, two robbers broke into the summer palace. One swept away the goods, while the other set fire to it. The victors became robbers themselves. The victors plundered the treasures of the summer palace and shared the spoils." Zhang Jiasheng. The "two robbers" refer to Britain and France, and Zhang Jiasheng evaluates the barbaric looting and arson committed by the Anglo-French allied forces in [year] as one of the most tragic and painful disasters in the history of human civilization, and the prelude to the massive loss of Chinese cultural heritage. We encountered a statue at the edge of the Western Mansions area, bearing Victor Hugo's bust and the aforementioned text inscribed in Chinese and French. As our team began to read it aloud in French, a Chinese mother nearby started reading it aloud to her child in Chinese. I wonder what thoughts and feelings the Chinese people had as they read this passage and looked upon the ruins of the Western Mansions.

As a result of the Second Opium War in [year], the Anglo-French allied forces demanded reparations from the Qing government. As a method of retaliation against the Qing government, after intense debate between the Anglo-French allied forces, it was decided to loot only the Old Summer Palace without affecting the populace. Zhang Jiasheng. It is likely that the presence of various precious treasures in the Old Summer Palace was widely known in the West, and looting was chosen as a method to inflict humiliation upon the Qing Emperor without engaging in a power-wasting conflict against the Chinese populace. In [year], the Anglo-French allied forces broke into the Old Summer Palace, guarded by a small number of Qing soldiers, and began looting. Officers were given priority in looting. After the officers had passed, the soldiers were given permission to loot freely, and they grabbed whatever they could, breaking anything that was too heavy to carry. Zhang Jiasheng. The Old Summer Palace, where looting and destruction took place, became a target for arson. According to Zhang Jiasheng's explanation, to impose severe punishment on the Qing Emperor and leave a mark of retribution, it was decided to burn down the magnificent summer palace without a trace. British Prime Minister Palmerston reportedly expressed "true joy" in approving the burning of the Old Summer Palace. Large-scale arson occurred twice, and the Old Summer Palace vanished without a trace. A soldier who directly participated in the arson is said to have remarked, "This unique architectural marvel can no longer be seen. Humanity will never see such a building again." Zhang Jiasheng. In the final stages of war, reason is paralyzed, and only violence and greed prevail. Perhaps the thought of preserving treasures for all of humanity was difficult to entertain. Setting aside the evaluation of merits and demerits, the scene of looting and fencing of stolen goods...

Under the command of British General Grant, all looted items were sold at auction, and the proceeds were distributed as bonuses to soldiers and officers according to their rank. The entire military camp reportedly turned into a marketplace in an instant. Zhang Jiasheng. The Old Summer Palace, subjected to looting and destruction, became the target of arson. Zhang Jiasheng explains that to impose severe punishment on the Qing Emperor and leave a mark of retribution, it was decided to burn down the magnificent summer palace without a trace. British Prime Minister Palmerston reportedly expressed "true joy" in approving the burning of the Old Summer Palace. Large-scale arson occurred twice, and the Old Summer Palace vanished without a trace. A soldier who directly participated in the arson is said to have remarked, "This unique architectural marvel can no longer be seen. Humanity will never see such a building again." Zhang Jiasheng. In the final stages of war, reason is paralyzed, and only violence and greed prevail. Perhaps the thought of preserving treasures for all of humanity was difficult to entertain. Setting aside the evaluation of merits and demerits, the scene of looting and fencing of stolen goods...

Displayed to the east of the Western Mansions of the Old Summer Palace

...will never be seen again. Zhang Jiasheng. In the final stages of war, reason is paralyzed, and only violence and greed prevail. Perhaps the thought of preserving treasures for all of humanity was difficult to entertain. Setting aside the evaluation of merits and demerits, the scene of looting and fencing of stolen goods...

I imagine the minds of the soldiers must have been quite complex and subtle as they witnessed such a massive palace burn down, along with the psychology of not wanting to leave behind the Victor Hugo Award.

Clash with the West: The Discordance Between the Imperial World Order and Modern Order

There are still differing opinions on what was the decisive factor that led to the shift in the balance of power in the latter half of the 19th century, favoring Western powers, after the seemingly harmonious flow of exchange and fusion between East and West in the 18th century. Of course, on the surface, it can be said that this was a power shift caused by the fact that the East, including China, did not adequately prepare to counter the military power and violence possessed by the modern West. However, to properly understand the irony of the West destroying the Yuanmingyuan, which embraced the West, we arrive at the frustration that such a power shift alone does not provide a sufficient answer. This leads to deeper contemplation beyond the superficial phenomena: was it due to an inability to prepare, or a failure to prepare? Furthermore, did they not feel the need to prepare? We decided to return to Emperor Qianlong just before leaving the Yuanmingyuan to contemplate this for a moment.

During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, there was Castiglione, but also Macartney. Was it only through the example of Castiglione, who successfully became Chinese, namely Lang Shining,

it is too hasty to judge the East-West exchange of the 18th century. Macartney's mission shows a completely different aspect of mutual relations compared to Lang Shining, and it is not an exaggeration to say that the clash between China's traditional imperial order and the Western modern order began here. It is perhaps natural that Macartney, who endured a long sea voyage for trade between equal nations, would not kowtow. As an equal trading partner, he felt no need to show the level of deference the Emperor demanded, believing it was sufficient to show basic courtesy within a certain range, as he represented the King of England. However, Emperor Qianlong's thinking was different. The gifts brought to open the channels of trade were merely part of the tribute that peripheral states should offer to the central state, and he did not think at all that this signified the initiation of trade relations in a modern sense based on that. This difference in mutual perception became the beginning of a confrontational relationship, and the accumulation of negative feedback eventually laid the groundwork for war.

Consequently, such armed conflict dealt a severe blow to China and brought about a change that shifted the operating principles of the East Asian international order from an imperial order to a modern order. Before asking why China, despite having had contact with Europe since early on, did not follow a developmental path similar to the Industrial Revolution, we need to consider the fundamental differences in the ways of thinking between the East and the West. Before assigning blame to the victim for not developing its national power earlier, we should focus on the differences in worldviews that served as the premise. Even though only a century has passed since the collapse of the imperial order, we cannot confidently assert whether the discussions of that time align with Hegelian or Rosanvallon's perspectives. It is not easy for people with such different worldviews to interact, understand each other, and build trust. Therefore, moving beyond a Eurocentric view that emphasizes only the powerlessness of the Qing Dynasty, we should focus on each other's differences to understand the situation at the time, and based on that, consider the messages that the 19th century can offer to the 20th century, and together contemplate the changing new world order, which remains our task.

Although many questions and stories remained, we, our expedition team, occupied the path with light steps, as if marching.

The discussion about the two scholars in the fifth session of the Sarangbang class was driven by the question of how the traditional East Asian imperial order can be understood within an theoretical framework. Briefly summarizing, the issue is whether the imperial order can be understood solely through the unique logic and theory of East Asia, or if it can also be sufficiently explained through existing international relations theory. Singing of Glorious and Tragic Eras: Yuanmingyuan Let's Look Together, Let's Think Together Lee Ju-won When I visit the Yuanmingyuan, what comes to mind without even thinking is

5 The discussion of two scholars during the Sarangbang class was initiated by the question of what kind of theoretical framework could be used to view the traditional East Asian international order. To briefly summarize, the issue is whether the international order can be understood solely through the unique logic and theory of East Asia, or if it can also be sufficiently explained through existing international relations theories. Singing of the glories and tragedies of the past: The Old Summer Palace Let's look together and think together. When I visit the Old Summer Palace, what comes to mind without hesitation is

There were three main things. First, the Chinese people who gathered when Yoo-jeong noona explained the paintings.

Second, the animal that did not appear among the twelve zodiac signs.

Third, the final recitation of poetry. If I add one more thing, perhaps we are the only ones who have experienced the Yuanmingyuan so enjoyably. Kim Min-geol From the perspective of architectural culture, the tragic space that was destroyed

and the composition that restores the past splendor it held were impressive from an architectural standpoint. I found it fascinating that our story of entering the space directly and experiencing it was also alive.

Oh Seung-hee, I never knew I would enjoy the maze I created so much.

I ended up arriving last with the reporter. Still,

after getting lost, we found our way out easily on the way back.

The Yuanmingyuan is a place where, if you visit without any preparation, you may leave without seeing anything.

It is a pity that Yoo-jeong's photos of the buildings before their collapse, which attracted Chinese tourists, cannot be included in the expedition report due to copyright issues. Kim Sun-kyung I completely agree with the preface of the report, 'The bridge in front...' Money

When I thought, 'What can one see in a place where the pieces are scattered everywhere?', after listening to Yoo-jeong's passionate presentation and seeing the paintings of the Yuanmingyuan before its destruction,

I was truly impressed that the Yuanmingyuan could be explored in such an interesting way. Shin Bo-ram As someone unfamiliar with East Asian history, I wondered while looking at the Yuanmingyuan, was the West, which became the standard of civilization, aware of that fact at the time? And in what concepts and actions did that awareness manifest?

Perhaps the Westerners who destroyed the Yuanmingyuan did not see it as a fake.

In other words, they might have thought that while Easterners could imitate, they could never truly reproduce, and therefore, they could not see the value of this magnificent architectural fusion of East and West.

Considering the lessons of both glory and destruction, what kind of civilizational standard will China create? And from what perspective will it view self and other, or perhaps even eliminate those boundaries? We must think about this.

Lee Jae-seong When I first entered the Yuanmingyuan, I saw piles of rubble everywhere and thought, 'What is this?'

After Yoo-jeong noona showed me paintings depicting the Yuanmingyuan before its destruction and explained the reasons why it is not currently being restored,

these piles of rubble took on a different meaning for me. Singing of Glorious and Tragic Eras: Yuanmingyuan Bibliography Law, George. 'Western Painters of the Qing Imperial Court.' *Journal of Art History*, no. [Issue Number].

Li Guolong, translated by Lee Hwa-seung. *The Emperor's Trade: The Dream Woven Together by Sinocentrism and Mercantilism*. Gwangju, 13 Hang. Seoul: Sonamu.

I remember exclaiming, "It's amazing to see this!" As someone unfamiliar with East Asian history, I thought the Old Summer Palace represented a standard of civilization.

I wonder if the West, which became the standard at the time, was aware of this fact.

And in what concepts and actions did that awareness manifest?

I was led to reconsider these questions. Perhaps the Westerners who destroyed the Old Summer Palace

did not view the Old Summer Palace as fake.

In other words, while East Asians could imitate, they could not truly reproduce.

Perhaps they held the idea that the West was unique, and therefore could not see the value of the magnificent architecture that fused East and West.

Perhaps they could not see the value of the magnificent architecture that fused East and West.

China, which holds both the glory and the lesson of destruction, what kind of civilizational standard will it create?

What perspective will it adopt to view self and other, or perhaps eliminate those boundaries?

I wonder if it will eliminate those boundaries, but we must consider it.

We must consider it.

Upon entering the Old Summer Palace, I was initially bewildered by the sight of numerous treasures, thinking, "What is this?"

Sister Yoo-jeong explained that the destruction of the Old Summer Palace

Beijing Palace Museum Official Website.

Swedish Royal Palace Official Website. Lee Ju-hyun. 'Emperor Qianlong's Western Painting Sensibility and the Formation of Lang Shining's Artistic Style.' *Journal of Art History*, no. [Issue Number].

Zhang Zisheng, translated by Park Jong-il. *History of the Loss of Chinese Cultural Heritage in Modern Times*. Goyang: Doseochulpan.

Inkansarang.

Jeong Seok-beom. 'Jean-Denis Attiret and Rococo Art's East Asian Transmission.' *Journal of Art History*, no. [Issue Number].

─── 'Emperor Qianlong's Western Painting Sensibility and the Formation of Lang Shining's Artistic Style, Focusing on the Tribute Horse Painting.' *Journal of Art History*, no. [Issue Number].

Huang Renda, translated by Jo Seong-ung. *Colors of China*. Seoul: Studio Camel, Beijing Wuzhou Chuanbo.

Publishing House.

───── The First Historical Archives of China. *Qing Dynasty Archival Materials: Yuanmingyuan*, Vol. 1-2. Shanghai.

Humanitarianism

Jeong Seok-beom, Jang Deuni, Atire, Wang ZhiCheng, and Rococo Art

East Asian Transmission, The Journal of Art History Studies, Issue No.

Emperor Qianlong's Western Painting Knowledge and the Formation of Lang Shining's Style, Focusing on the Painting Tribute Horse, The Journal of Art History Studies, Issue No.

The Journal of Art History Studies, Issue No.

Hwang Renda, Cho Seong-ung (trans.), The Colors of China, Seoul: Studio Camel Beijing Wuzhou Chuanbo

Publishing House

The First Historical Archives of China, Historical Materials of the Qing Dynasty Archives: The Old Summer Palace, Vol. 1 & 2, Shanghai

Shanghai Classics Publishing House

*This text is an AI translation of an original written in Korean. Some translations or nuances may be inaccurate.

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