1930s New Order in East Asia and Japan's Opportunity

Kyushu National Museum of History and Culture · Kang Hyun-min · Korea University

Kyushu National Museum of History and Culture: 'From Japan to Asia'

The Kyushu National Museum of History and Culture. This museum, representing the Kyushu region which has historically introduced ceramics, Dutch studies, and Western culture, and which led the great transformation of the Asian order in the 20th century, appears no different from any other museum worldwide at first glance. Its modern architectural style, the artifacts and historical materials displayed within showcasing Japan's history from its origins to the present, the indispensable museum shop, open cafe, and restaurants, and the visitors filling its spaces. From one perspective, it might seem like a trite and ordinary museum, satisfying enough just to get a photo for Facebook. However, for those with a bit more thought, or for people like myself who enjoy finding minute details even without much thought, there is no greater pleasure than discovering something special and unique within this triteness and ordinariness. 8. The 1930s New Order in East Asia and Japan's Opportunity: Kyushu National Museum of History and Culture

The uniqueness and distinctiveness of the Kyushu National Museum of History and Culture begin with the exhibition concept it promotes. I was particularly drawn to the exhibition concept of the museum's permanent exhibition hall. This permanent exhibition hall is the 'Cultural Exchange Exhibition Room' located on the fourth floor of the museum, which the museum presents as its 'face.' The museum introduces the exhibition concept of the Cultural Exchange Exhibition Room as follows:

Here (Cultural Exchange Exhibition Room), approximately 800 cultural assets can be viewed at any time, serving as the museum's face.

However, why is it named 'Cultural Exchange Exhibition' rather than 'Permanent Exhibition'?

This is an answer to the task assigned to the Kyushu National Museum of History and Culture: to exhibit the history of Japan's cultural exchange.

Not a comprehensive history of Japan, nor the regional history of Kyushu, but the history of cultural exchange with Asia.

In this exhibition room, we aim to show the path through which Japanese culture has not merely imitated foreign cultures, but has digested and accumulated them to create its own unique world.

It aims to show the path through which Japanese culture has digested and accumulated foreign cultures, rather than merely imitating them,

and created its own unique world.

When I read the introductory text, my initial personal impression was a cautious question of whether Japan, or at least this museum, harbors a sense of victimhood, believing that Japanese culture has not been recognized for its uniqueness. While it is true that museums in other countries also strive to showcase the uniqueness of their national cultures, the Kyushu National Museum, as mentioned in the quote above, is clearly aware of the criticism that Japanese culture imitated foreign cultures and seems to be attempting to transform Japanese culture into one of 'digestion and accumulation' to overcome this perception.

In fact, looking into Japanese history reveals continuous efforts to gain recognition for its unique identity. Unlike us, who had established our own place within the Sinocentric order for a long time, Japan, neither a complete barbarian nor a complete tributary state, constantly strove to find its own identity. Documents such as the 'Letter from the King of Joseon to the Tokugawa Shogunate,' one of the main exhibits, show that Japan sought to establish a relationship of equality with Joseon, for instance, by simplifying the treatment of envoys from Joseon. Even earlier, Prince Shōtoku of Japan responded to a letter from the Sui Emperor referring to the Japanese ruler as 'King of Wa' by stating, 'The Emperor in the East respectfully writes to the Emperor in the West,' thus attempting to establish a relationship of equality with China as a nation with its own 'Emperor.' In a way, Japan's ambiguous position within the Sinocentric order allowed it more freedom of action compared to Korea. This might be why it was able to contact Western countries like the Netherlands from a relatively early stage. However, ultimately, this may have had the effect of further blurring Japan's identity, as it mixed Western culture with the cultures adopted from China and Korea. 8. The East Asian New Order of the 1930s and Japan's Opportunity: Kyushu National Museum

As Japan opened its doors earlier than other Asian countries in the 20th century and embraced Western civilization, it experienced rapid political, economic, and military growth. Based on this enhanced national power, Japan had a golden opportunity to break the existing Sinocentric order, secure a place for Japanese identity in Asia, and establish a new order centered around that position. Of course, to conclude, that golden opportunity ultimately met a sorrowful end. Although Japan had the chance to establish a new order in Asia, its methods and means of utilizing that opportunity were flawed, leading to its abandonment by both Asian and Western countries.

20th Century Japan: A Golden Opportunity to Establish Its Identity

That golden opportunity for Japan was the 'Theory of the East Asian New Order' (東亞新秩序論). As I understand it, the East Asian New Order essentially proposes that Japanese nationalism, which is portrayed as the only peace-loving nationalism in Asia, should become the center of Asia and integrate other Asian nations. What is noteworthy here is the fact that such discourse was prevalent in Japan in the 1930s, just before the outbreak of World War II. Therefore, the Theory of the East Asian New Order may have been created as a justification for the aggressive wars waged by the Japanese military against Joseon, Taiwan, and China leading up to World War II, or it may have been built upon the belief that the Japanese people are more peace-loving than other Asians.

However, my perspective is slightly different. In my view, the East Asian New Order was part of Japan's efforts to establish its own identity. After failing to find a stable position in Asia for thousands of years, it contained a fervent desire to finally establish its place by dismantling the entire Sinocentric order and creating a new order centered on Japan. How desperate must they have been to rush to rationalize even the unilateral and brutal acts of aggression by the Japanese military, which the government could not even control? The philosopher Miki Kiyoshi, in his essay 'Japan's Reality,' published in the November 1937 issue of Chūō Kōron, defines the East Asian New Order as follows:

Historically, Japan, which had only received cultural transmissions from the end of the Silk Road, was for the first time given the opportunity to 'advance onto the continent and create a path for a new East Asian culture through the advancement of Japanese culture.' The unification of East Asia was already an approaching stage in world history, and from a cultural-historical perspective, it was Japan's mission to achieve this with all its might.

Here, Miki suggests that to open the path for the formation of a new East Asian culture, the advancement of Japanese culture must come first. So, what was this Japanese culture? In my opinion, it was a 'peace-loving culture.' From the staff of the Kyushu National Museum to the entire Kyushu region, and further to all of Japan, there are no people with kinder and gentler dispositions than the Japanese people. Even if it were mere pretense, through this visit, I thought that Miki might have also developed the perception that 'the Japanese truly love peace' by observing Asians and those around him. However, in a way, one might wonder if he was only looking at his immediate surroundings. At that time, in China, the Japanese military was ruthlessly trampling, torturing, and killing countless innocent people. At this point, I was suddenly reminded of the book "Moral Man and Immoral Society" by the American philosopher Reinhold Niebuhr, which I diligently read through the 'Sarangbang' lectures. The book argues that 'individuals can be moral, but societies are immoral.' It explains how even if a grandfather tending his neighbor's garden or an aunt working at a flower shop are each very kind and friendly, when they are mixed in a crowd with slogans like 'anti-Semitism,' 'liberation of China,' or 'racial superiority,' they all become immoral beings. I wondered if Miki's ideas might have changed significantly had he written this book a little earlier and been able to read it. In any case, whether he truly came to this belief by only looking at the kind and friendly people living nearby, or if his ideas were misused to rationalize even the brutal acts of the Japanese military due to his misrepresentation of Japanese culture as 'valuing peace' without reflecting on the atrocities committed by the Japanese military in Manchuria, is unclear.

Returning to the story of Japan's desire to establish its own identity, this is not actually a difficult story to understand. I myself, and those around me, believe that people fundamentally want to be recognized by others. While there are various ways to elicit recognition from others, people generally seek recognition by boasting about their affiliations, professions, and social status. In the case of South Korean men, there is a culture where they can only truly acknowledge each other and communicate easily after completing military service, suggesting that recognition can be gained from others only when there is a sense of belonging that can be shared. With this premise in mind, Japan lacked such a clear sense of belonging. Or, in a way, Japan could be seen as having rejected it. At that time, in East Asia, the 'Sinocentric order' could be seen as the entity that conferred such affiliations and social status. However, Japan did not conform to the hierarchical order imposed by the Sinocentric order and consistently sought an equal relationship with the continental Asian countries. Therefore, in this context, Japan has had a sense of rejection towards the Sinocentric order since ancient times, but paradoxically, it seems to have also harbored a sense of longing for it. In reality, that longing was not for the Sinocentric order itself, but for the countries that coexisted within that order, recognizing each other. Even if not the Sinocentric order, Japan also desired to belong to some kind of order. At that opportune moment, Japan was presented with the chance to dismantle the existing East Asian order, the Sinocentric order, and establish an order it desired and could belong to. 8. The New East Asian Order of the 1930s and Japan's Opportunity: Kyushu National Museum

Earlier, I briefly mentioned Kiyoshi Miki and the 'peace-loving Japanese culture,' which can be seen as the core difference between the new East Asian order Japan sought to build and the existing Sinocentric order. In this regard, another philosopher, Masamichi Royama, argued in his November 1938 article "The Theory of the East Asian Cooperative Body" published in <Kaizo> as follows:

The unification of the East must be forged through the overcoming of nationalism.

But where does the driving force lie that can enable this overcoming? This

driving force is inherent in the process of Japanese nationalism advancing onto the Asian continent

(Royama Masamichi 1938, 11).

It seems that the Japanese nationalism Royama speaks of here aligns with the peace-loving Japanese culture that Miki discusses. In his aforementioned paper, Miki argues that Japanese nationalism is based on the Japanese concept of imperial rule, that is, 'cooperativism based on a unique national structure of 'one Emperor and one people' without precedent in the world,' encompassing inclusiveness, progressiveness, intellectual character, and a living, practical nature. In other words, Japan has 'a unique solidarity and cooperative spirit that is sufficient to rectify East Asian thought,' and this is because of the 'idea of one nation, one people, and the benefit of all people, which forms the basis of the Japanese national structure' (Ham Dong-ju 2000, 30). Miki viewed this 'Japanese' national concept not as exclusive to Japan but extendable to China, and Royama held a similar perspective. Royama ultimately inherited Miki's shortcomings, and his arguments were also exploited to justify the atrocities of the Japanese military. Regardless of the initial intentions, if the outcome is negative, the intentions themselves become subject to criticism.

In a way, this is a sad story of Japan's continuous efforts to gain a sense of belonging. It is the story of a lonely wolf wandering, unable to find its home. Before the arrival of Western powers, it tried to find its place within the Sinocentric order but failed. After the arrival of Western powers, it tried to find its place within the European order but failed, leaving Japan in an ambiguous position in the international community to this day. The assertive foreign policy recently pursued by Prime Minister Abe, such as amending the pacifist constitution that prohibits Japan from possessing military power and engaging in warfare, exporting weapons, and dispatching Self-Defense Forces abroad, could also be seen as a desperate attempt to find its place in today's world order. It is possible that Japan's ultimate goal is to establish a 'neo-East Asian New Order,' where it can exert significant influence with US support, by leveraging the US position of wanting to gradually shift the responsibility for deterring China and North Korea onto Japan, in order to promote peace and security in East Asia. However, I personally have doubts as to whether history can be distorted and past actions justified without sufficient reflection, but I feel a great regret that Japan missed the golden opportunity it encountered in the 1930s. Just as today's Islamists yearn for the once-brilliant Pan-Islamic State and strive to re-establish it, Japan, with its significant regret over missing that opportunity, must also have a strong desire to return to that era.

Conclusion

As I toured the Kyushu National Museum, I wondered how I could have come up with such thoughts just by reading the exhibition's concept. Regardless of whether these thoughts are good or bad, the ability to think this much stems from having a sense of the issue as a citizen of the Republic of Korea, a soldier, and someone interested in Korea-Japan relations. This sense of the issue pertains to the roles and responsibilities that each country, including the Republic of Korea, China, and Japan, must bear within today's East Asian order. The more I think about it, the more I realize that 'the East Asian order is still in its formative stage.' After the Sinocentric order collapsed under the invasion of Western powers, we have yet to establish a substantial order. If anything, one could argue that a bipolar structure has been established, with South Korea and Japan dependent on the US forming one pole, and China and North Korea forming the other. Personally, I feel it is regrettable that this bipolar structure seems to be further delaying the establishment of an East Asian order. To make matters worse, within this divided situation, Japan, clinging to its glorious past, attempts to establish its own order without sufficient consideration for neighboring countries, making the establishment of an East Asian order even more complex.

To establish a peaceful and stable East Asian order, Japan, at the very least, needs to re-evaluate its position. Japan, which once held hegemony in East Asia, needs to objectively assess its current position rather than dwelling on the past. It must transform from an outdated hegemonic power into a middle power for the new era. To achieve this, it must refrain from efforts such as historical distortion and military expansion aimed at justifying and glorifying Japan as an old hegemonic power. Instead, it must recognize itself as a middle power of the new era and reconsider what role Japan can play within today's East Asian order.

Kyushu, the gateway to Japan's entry into the era of hegemony. It was here that the Meiji Restoration first took flight, and key figures who helped Japan become a hegemonic power, such as Hirobumi Ito, emerged. Even though it is a region farthest from Tokyo, the capital of Japan, Kyushu was undoubtedly the center in the process of establishing the new East Asian order in the 1930s. As the Kyushu National Museum represents a region of such historical significance, political science students like us had to visit it with utmost caution. ■ 8. The New East Asian Order of the 1930s and Japan's Opportunity: Kyushu National Museum References Ham Dong-ju. 2000. “Miki Kiyoshi's Theory of East Asian Cooperation and the National Question.” <Journal of Humanities> 30.

Royama Masamichi. 1938. “The Theory of the East Asian Cooperative Body.” <Kaizo> 11.