Glover's Fluttering Wings Caused the Turbulent Modern History of Japan and Northeast Asia: Glover Garden

Kim Ju-yeon · Hankuk University of Foreign Studies

Introduction

Glover Garden

is located on Minami-Yamate Hill. This

(グラバー園)

hill was the main area where Europeans lived in the late 1800s, and traces of their presence and culture remain. At the entrance is Shikairo (西海樓), said to be the origin of the famous Nagasaki Champon. Although we had planned to eat there, all reservations were booked weeks in advance. Consequently, we ended up eating delicious Nagasaki Champon at Kyokaren (京華園) near our accommodation, Dormy Inn Nagasaki, at the entrance of Chinatown, before heading to Minami-Yamate Hill.

We had planned to eat there,

(西海樓)

but all reservations were booked weeks in advance. Consequently, we ended up eating delicious Nagasaki Champon at Kyokaren (京華園) near our accommodation, Dormy Inn Nagasaki, at the entrance of Chinatown, before heading to Minami-Yamate Hill.

On Minami-Yamate Hill are various old buildings such as Oura Church (大浦天主堂, Oura Tenshudō, おおうらてんしゅどう) and the former Russian Consulate, as well as the main branch of Bunmeido (文明堂), considered one of Nagasaki's top three castella specialty stores.

main branch

(文明堂) 3. Glover's Fluttering Wings Caused the Turbulent Modern History of Japan and Northeast Asia: Glover Garden. While staying on Minami-Yamate Hill, I could easily imagine the former Nagasaki, which served as a gateway connecting Japan with the outside world as one of the early open ports of modern times.

As we walked up the hill from the car, the sides of the road were lined with various souvenir shops, indicating that this was quite a famous spot for general tourism. At the end of this bustling uphill path lies the entrance to Glover Garden, with a serene atmosphere as if isolated from the outside world. Perhaps due to a brief shower that had just passed before our group arrived, colorful butterflies were fluttering all around. Glover Garden is famous as the setting for the opera 'Madama Butterfly,' and it felt peculiar to be greeted by the spirit of Glover, who caused a 'butterfly effect' in East Asian modern history, as if welcoming our group from afar.

The Glover Residence is a 19th-century British-style wooden building located on a hill with a scenic view overlooking the harbor. In addition, Glover Garden was created by gathering European-style buildings scattered throughout Nagasaki City.

These buildings blend British and Japanese architectural styles. The former Glover Residence, former Ringer Residence, and former O'Rourke Residence, designated as Important Cultural Properties of Japan, best exemplify this. These structures are bungalows (Bungalow: a small, single-story wooden house with a veranda), a unique architectural culture of Europeans residing in Hong Kong or Shanghai. Furthermore, the architecture appears to follow the Georgian style, a period preceding the Victorian era, rather than the Victorian style itself. The stone-paved veranda floor, the lattice-shaped arches, and the French-style windows show Western influence. On the other hand, Japanese influence can be seen in the 'demon's head' roof tiles and the Japanese-style pond with swimming carp. However, these houses were built not by Europeans but by a Japanese architect named Koyama Hidenoshin (McKay 1993, 39-40). As the saying goes, 'Interpretation is more important than the dream itself,' there is a significant difference between viewing the architecture with this knowledge and without it.

Although the owner passed away long ago, subsequent generations preserved this beautiful mansion as a park, and it has now become a famous spot in Nagasaki. When our group arrived, a gentle rain was falling on Glover Garden, adding to its charm. The mansion and the view from the path leading up to the observation deck were truly magnificent. It became clear why this mansion served as the backdrop for Puccini's famous opera, 'Madama Butterfly.' Although the protagonist of Madama Butterfly, 'Cho-Cho-San,' is a fictional character, standing alone in the garden of the Glover Residence overlooking Nagasaki Harbor, it felt as if 'Cho-Cho-San' might suddenly appear, waiting forlornly for the never-returning 'Pinkerton.' However, it is said that Glover's second wife, who was actually Japanese and lived in the Glover Residence, lived harmoniously with Glover for 32 years, having one daughter, and was not abandoned. Therefore, there is no need to feel sorrow while thinking of 'Cho-Cho-San' at Glover Garden. We can rest assured.

The Opera 'Madama Butterfly' and the Opening of Ports in China, Japan, and Korea

(開港) Tourists with little knowledge of international politics visit Nagasaki and invariably include Glover Garden in their itinerary. While the garden's beauty is certainly a reason, the primary draw is likely the opera Madama Butterfly, famous for its aria 'Un Bel Di.' Glover Garden is the actual mansion that served as the stage for this love story. As if to prove this, a statue commemorating the opera stands in a corner of Glover Garden. Furthermore, similar to the legend that locking a padlock on Namsan Mountain's peak ensures eternal love for couples, there is a tale, whether true or not, that finding two heart-shaped stones on the garden floor brings about love. Korean tourists, in particular, who consider romance a crucial aspect of life, never fail to find the heart-shaped stones and take commemorative photos. Unfortunately, I could only find one when I visited, which was quite disappointing.

The opera 'Madama Butterfly' originated from a memoir written in 1885 by Pierre Loti, the pseudonym of French soldier Julien Marie Viaud, who heard Glover's love story. Subsequently, American John Luther Long read the memoir and published the novel 'Madama Butterfly' in the 'American Century Magazine' in 1898. It is said that the ending, where Madama Butterfly takes her own life, was changed at this point. In 1900, Puccini saw the play 'Madama Butterfly' and decided to compose an opera. The opera premiered in 1904 to great acclaim and continues to be loved 110 years later (McKay 1993, 177).

Among Glover's several wives, the actual person who inspired the opera Madama Butterfly was Kaga Maki, the biological mother of his eldest son, Thomas Albert Glover (Japanese name: Kuraba Tomisaburo, 1870-1945) (McKay 1993, 4). In 1870, Kaga Maki, upon discovering her pregnancy with Glover's child, went to him seeking acknowledgment. However, Glover refused, using his marriage to Tsuru the previous year as an excuse. Kaga Maki then attempted suicide with her son but miraculously survived. However, this tragedy was not unique to her at the time. After the opening of the ports, Nagasaki was an unstable and dangerous area for European women due to security concerns. Men struggled to find wives and often had 'temporary' Japanese wives, whom they typically abandoned upon returning to their home countries (McKay 1993, 136).

The tragic love story of the American officer 'Pinkerton' and the geisha 'Cho-Cho-San,' which reflected the circumstances of that era, continues to be loved worldwide. Such love stories, depicted during the intersection of East and West, are often portrayed as tragic tales of Western men and Eastern women, rather than happy unions, and these narratives remain popular globally even today. The motif of 'tragic love between a Western man and an Eastern woman' is captivating across time and space, and its impact is amplified by being based on real events. However, this imagery bears a striking resemblance to the history of the opening of ports in China, Japan, and Korea during that period. The era that Madama Butterfly is set in was a time when the Western international order, centered around sovereign states, clashed with the Eastern international order, which operated on the principle of serving the great and small (事大字小).

principle of serving the great and small

(事大字小)

was a time of conflict. However, this encounter between China, Japan, Korea, and the West began with violence. China, the center of the world order at the time, was opened through the Treaty of Nanking (1842), the first unequal treaty signed with Britain after the Second Opium War in 1841. Subsequently, China experienced active invasions by Western powers, including the Arrow Incident (1856) and the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin (1858) (Kim Yong-gu 2006, 288-295).

China (vs.)

China experienced active invasions by Western powers, including the Arrow Incident (1856) and the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin (1858) (Kim Yong-gu 2006, 288-295).

However, the United States, more than Britain, began to show interest in Japan. The first reason was the significant development of the cotton textile industry in the U.S., with cotton exports to China accounting for 20-30% of total cotton exports. Therefore, a coaling station was needed en route to the Chinese market. The second reason was the flourishing whaling industry in the U.S., and Japan was located near major fishing grounds. In 1854, Commodore Perry of the U.S. led a fleet to demand the opening of Japan from the Shogunate. When this did not proceed smoothly, he demonstrated military force, and Japan eventually signed the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854), marking its first treaty-based opening to Western powers (Kim Yong-gu 2006, 181-321).

However, while Qing China and Joseon Korea experienced a turbulent and unfortunate history after military conflicts, Japan's case is more akin to the smooth life of Glover and his second wife who actually lived in Glover Garden. After its forced opening, Japan not only rapidly developed by actively adopting Western civilization but also eventually gained recognition as an equal member of the international community alongside European nations. Thomas Blake Glover is indispensable to the beginning of this modernization history of Japan. Have you now roughly guessed why Glover Garden, not a palace inhabited by kings or lords, but the residence of a foreign merchant, has been preserved as a park and honored for so long? At this point, you must be curious about the man who lived in this mansion. Initially, our group, like you, was very curious about why we came to what appeared to be an ordinary park rather than a museum or memorial hall.

Thomas Blake Glover, a Man of Destiny Who Shaped Northeast Asian History

Thomas Blake Glover (1838-1911) was born in Aberdeen, a coastal city in northeastern Scotland. His father was a coast guard responsible for monitoring smuggling, and his family belonged to the ordinary middle class. Glover was the fourth of five sons and one daughter, with three older brothers and one younger sister and brother. Aberdeen was a major center for the shipping industry at the time, and this environment greatly influenced Glover. While ordinary Aberdeen boys grew up to become shipbrokers or captains, Glover, desiring to experience a wider world, left for China immediately after graduating from school, unlike his three older brothers. It is presumed that Glover was able to come to Shanghai, China, through a distant relative who worked for Jardine & Matheson Co., a prominent trading company in Shanghai at the time, who acted as an intermediary. Through this introduction, Glover, at the age of 19, arrived in China in 1857, and later, his siblings also formed deep connections with the Far East, particularly Japan, through him (McKay 1993, 5-13).

Shanghai, China, had already been open for over 15 years by then, and by the time Glover arrived, it was a region frequented by Europeans. Jardine & Matheson, operating in Shanghai, was a rapidly growing trading company based in Hong Kong at the time. While engaged in businesses such as tea and silk trade, maritime transport, and insurance, it was primarily one of the British companies that monopolized the opium trade with China. It is believed that Glover learned about the trading business here for about three years until he left for Nagasaki in 1859 (McKay 1993, 14-15).

Around the time Glover arrived in East Asia, Western demands for the opening of Northeast Asia became increasingly overt. Amidst this situation, the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan in 1858, following the Treaty of Kanagawa, and Nagasaki became an open port through this treaty. Glover's journey to Nagasaki was entirely due to these turbulent geopolitical currents in Northeast Asia. In September 1859, at the age of 21, Glover, following Kenneth Ross Mackenzie, a Scottish merchant seeking better business opportunities in Japan, landed in Nagasaki as if swept by the waves, beginning his long and enduring connection with Japan (McKay 1993, 18-19).

After working for Jardine & Matheson for about two years under Mackenzie, Glover resided in Dejima, the only area where foreigners were permitted to live in Nagasaki at the time, until 1861.1 In 1861, Mackenzie, having lost interest in the less profitable Japanese trade, departed. Using the funds he left behind, Glover began constructing his own residence on the top of Minami-Yamate Hill in Oura, where foreign residences were permitted from 1860. The construction was completed in 1863, and this is the current Glover Garden (McKay 1993, 30). From the point he stepped out from under Mackenzie's shadow, Glover began to grow independently by trading

tea and engaging in trade, and began to grow independently

(Tea)

(McKay 1993, 34). In this process, he began to build friendships with samurai using the Japanese language skills he had acquired, gaining insight into the domestic political situation of Japan at the time. Japan was divided among various feudal powers, and the samurai of the Satsuma domain, where Nagasaki is located, harbored strong dissatisfaction with the Shogun and his policies. The vigorous young Glover forged strong spiritual bonds with these samurai, maintaining these friendships throughout his life (McKay 1993, 37-39). This is evident from his self-description as a 'Scottish Samurai' in an interview conducted in 1910.

1 "The Last Explorers, Thomas Blake Glover." BBC Scotland, December 15,

2011. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzvo31RrPqo (Accessed: June 21, 2014). The political situation in Japan at the time was extremely unstable. Following the opening of the country, the Shogunate lost the trust of many feudal lords. Conversely, the Emperor, who had taken a clear stance in the trade treaties, began to gain prominence. After the trade treaties, samurai advocating for 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians' (尊王攘夷) increased. To address this, Shogun Iemochi Tokugawa married the Emperor's younger sister but failed to gain control over all feudal domains. Instead, the Kyoto government emerged as the center of political power through this marriage, signaling the beginning of the end for the Shogunate system. Resentment was escalating, particularly among the radical domains of Satsuma, Mito, and Choshu. Furthermore, the sudden trade treaties accelerated economic turmoil, leading to hardship for the Japanese people and fueling anti-foreign sentiment, resulting in frequent incidents of foreigners being murdered. In 1862, not only was the British legation in Edo systematically attacked, but in a village called Namamugi, not far from the open port of Yokohama, a group of Englishmen on a riding trip encountered samurai from Satsuma traveling from Edo to Kyoto. One samurai, deeming them 'rude,' murdered Charles Lennox Richardson and seriously injured two others (the Namamugi Incident). The following year, Britain demanded 100,000 pounds in reparations from the Shogunate for the series of incidents involving its citizens, as well as the execution of the perpetrators and 25,000 pounds in compensation from the Satsuma domain (Jang Pal-hyun 2011, 207).

Planting the Seeds of Modernization in Japan: The Five Choshu Students

In 1863, as tensions with Britain escalated, Glover decided to arrange for the escape of the renowned 'Choshu Five' to study in Britain. Inoue Kaoru

planned this, and along with Ito Hirobumi, who was involved in the burning of the British legation a year earlier,

(井上馨)

Inoue Masaru, and Yamao Yōzō, they gathered. Glover planned to send these intelligent samurai to Britain via Shanghai, connecting them with Jardine & Matheson Co. They prepared to leave Japan while hiding at Glover's company branch in Yokohama.

At that time, it was strictly forbidden for Japanese nationals to leave Japan, punishable by death. Therefore, Glover himself faced severe risk if discovered. He installed cannons in his garden to prepare for potential attacks if discovered, and our group was able to see these cannons. Furthermore, Glover's residence had a secret room, and it was explained that many samurai, including the Choshu Five, used it as a hiding place. Due to the circumstances of the time, for their journey, they cut their topknots, wore borrowed British sailor uniforms on the day of departure, and spoke incoherently to appear foreign, thus evading the guards on the beach. They had to hide in the ship's fuel storage, holding their breath. Ito Hirobumi, in particular, faced the risk of losing his life if he did not leave Japan quickly before being reported to the Choshu domain. The tension must have been immense, and even at the farewell party held the night before their departure, the five young samurai could not hide their anxiety. Ultimately, they successfully left Japan and began their journey to Shanghai (McKay 1993, 45-47).

Upon arriving at the port of Shanghai, filled with large Western steamships and warships, Inoue Kaoru experienced bitter disappointment, realizing that Japan could never defeat the West. Ito Hirobumi, the only one who could speak English, was unable to communicate effectively and was thus useless. The manager of Jardine & Matheson in Shanghai mistook them for sailors seeking to learn navigation. Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru boarded the company's 300-ton sailing ship 'Pegasus,' while the other three traveled to London as passengers on a passenger ship. Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru endured a grueling four-month voyage to Europe, working as sailors, suffering immensely from hard labor and severe seasickness. Upon finally arriving in Britain, they received exceptional hospitality from Jardine & Matheson in London. Alexander William Williamson, a chemistry professor at University College London (UCL) at the time, assisted them. They stayed at Williamson's home, visited museums, galleries, and universities, and became friends with many students at the University of London. Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru also visited Glover's family home in Aberdeen. While Ito Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru were motivated by political aspirations, Yamao Yōzō was more interested in technological advancements and studied shipbuilding. The profound shock and admiration the Japanese samurai must have felt upon witnessing the prosperity of Victorian England, the era of greatest prosperity, are beyond imagination. Considering their subsequent roles as key figures in the government, it can be easily inferred that they felt, above all, that 'if a small island nation like Britain can prosper, so can Japan' (McKay 1993, 47-48).

When their demands were not adequately met, Britain felt the need to take action. On August 15, 1863, Britain seized three Satsuma ships and initiated the Anglo-Satsuma War (薩英戦争, Bombardment of Kagoshima), bombarding Kagoshima, the center of the Satsuma domain. This event led the samurai of the Satsuma domain to realize that 'expelling barbarians' was no longer feasible (Jang Pal-hyun 2005, 208). This incident also served as a catalyst for young samurai, including the future historical admiral Heihachiro Togo (1848-1934), to recognize the superiority of Western civilization. It also provided the background for Glover to send another group of 19 'Satsuma men' to Britain in 1964. If the Choshu domain realized the impossibility of 'expelling barbarians' in this manner, the five samurai from the Choshu domain who had fled to Britain were realizing the impossibility of expelling barbarians in a different way (Mckay 1993, 60).

The Satsuma and Choshu domains, which initially aimed to 'expel barbarians' and had trained assassins based on the 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians' movement since their youth, quickly shifted their isolationist stance through a series of events. Interest in Western weaponry grew in both the Satsuma and Choshu domains. Recognizing this trend, Glover, along with his brother James Glover, established Glover & Co. in 1861. While continuing their existing tea

and silk trade, they began to import weapons and used ships in earnest to meet this demand, achieving significant profits. In 1864, they reached their peak profit. In this year, their second brother, Alex Glover, joined them, and the elder brother Jim returned to Aberdeen. Glover & Co. began to grow rapidly (McKay 1993, 54). Kido Takayoshi's diary describes Glover as a 'Scottish merchant' who played a significant role in importing weapons to the domains opposing the Tokugawa Shogunate and sending students abroad during the late Tokugawa period, reflecting Glover's perception in Japanese society at the time (Brown 1993).2

and silk trade, they began to import weapons and used ships in earnest to meet this demand, achieving significant profits. In 1864, they reached their peak profit. In this year, their second brother, Alex Glover, joined them, and the elder brother Jim returned to Aberdeen. Glover & Co. began to grow rapidly (McKay 1993, 54). Kido Takayoshi's diary describes Glover as a 'Scottish merchant' who played a significant role in importing weapons to the domains opposing the Tokugawa Shogunate and sending students abroad during the late Tokugawa period, reflecting Glover's perception in Japanese society at the time (Brown 1993).2

Meanwhile, domestically, the 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians' faction of the Choshu domain marched into Kyoto, but the Shogunate suppressed this rebellion. Subsequently, a combined fleet of the United States, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and France attacked the Shimonoseki batteries, defeating the Choshu domain, and the 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians' movement collapsed. Hearing this domestic news, Ito and Inoue, among the Choshu Five, hurried back to Japan (Mckay 1993, 54). These two samurai soon became key figures in the Choshu domain and played a crucial role in Glover's success as a businessman, maintaining a close symbiotic relationship with the Satsuma domain through arms trading. From 1865 to 1868, Glover imported a total of 170,000 firearms, valued at $2.4 million (Seoul National University Department of Political Science and International Relations 2012, 94).

In 1865, the year of the Meiji Restoration, Glover persuaded Sir Harry Parkes, the British Ambassador to Japan at the time, to advocate to the British government that the uprisings of the Satsuma and Choshu domains were justified in Japan's domestic affairs. He also persuaded Park to visit Kagoshima and meet with the lord of the Satsuma domain, ensuring Britain's neutrality in Japan's internal affairs.

Not only that, but Glover's mansion was frequently visited by Choshu domain samurai such as Kido Takayoshi (1833-1877), one of the three great figures of the Meiji Restoration (McKay 1993, 109). Furthermore, by fostering cooperation between the Satsuma and Choshu domains, Glover contributed to strengthening the anti-shogunate system. Ryoma Sakamoto, who became a star overnight, was also one of the samurai who passed through Glover's mansion, and through Glover, he was able to establish the Kameyama Shachu.

He was able to import military provisions.

(Kameyama Shachu)

3

In 1866, the Shogunate attacked the Choshu domain but was defeated. With the death of Shogun Iemochi, Yoshinobu became Shogun. He attempted reforms with French assistance, but it was already too late. In 1867, the Satsuma, Choshu, and Tosa domains issued the Imperial Restoration Edict, and the Emperor entered Edo Castle, marking the end of the 260-year Edo Shogunate era (Jang Pal-hyun 2005, 209).

3 Wikipedia. http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%E Before the end of the Edo Shogunate, Glover planned to develop mines in Takashima, near present-day Sasebo, and to install a dry dock in Nagasaki Harbor. With the beginning of the Meiji era, Japan's first warship, the 'Hōshō Maru,' was built in Aberdeen and set sail (McKay 1993, 108). Glover was also the figure who provided impetus to the immature revolution of this period. Kido Takayoshi, a key figure in the Meiji Restoration, wrote in his 1868 diary, "We (Glover and Kido Takayoshi) discussed the events of the past three years. ... And since we had met after a long time, we had much to talk about." From this, we can infer Glover's unseen contributions (Brown 1993).4

In 1868, Glover & Co. reached its peak, opening branches in Kobe and Osaka, but its decline was also approaching. Due to excessive business expansion, debts were accumulating. Nevertheless, Glover did not stop and built the second warship 'Choshu Maru' (later named 'Ryūjō Maru' by Emperor Meiji) and the third warship 'Wensho Maru.' These warships would become the core of Japan's naval power, second to none in the world decades later (McKay 1993, 130-131).

Glover borrowed money from various sources to build warships, which became the main cause of Glover & Co.'s bankruptcy in 1870. His debts amounted to 4 Sidney Devere Brown, “Nagasaki in the Meiji Restoration: Choshu Loyalists and British Arms Merchants,” CROSSROADS 1 (1993). Accessed June 22, 2014. http://www.uwosh.edu/home_pages/faculty_staff/earns/meiji.html 3. Glover's Wingbeats Trigger the Turbulent Modern History of Japan and Northeast Asia: Kurabaen $500,000, but his total assets were only $200,000. Glover sold the mines he owned to Mathieson & Co. in 1983. Glover managed the mines in lieu of payment for several years. At that time, coal prices were steadily declining, so he chose to reduce production costs to increase profits. This led to a mining accident in 1875, in which five people died and forty were seriously injured. This incident was recorded as Japan's first industrial accident during its modernization process and became a major stain on Glover's achievements (McKay 1993, 150).

The Pioneer of Japanese Industrialization, Mitsubishi

In 1876, Glover accepted an offer to become an advisor to Mitsubishi. In 1881, due to falling coal prices and frequent riots, Jardine Matheson & Co. eventually handed over the mines to Mitsubishi. Glover stayed in Tokyo, receiving preferential treatment, until he returned to Nagasaki as mine manager (McKay 1993, 152). Mitsubishi Group, now a major Japanese conglomerate, was founded by Yataro Iwasaki in 1870 as a shipping company. It later diversified into mining, shipbuilding, banking, insurance, warehousing, and trade. It also expanded its industrial sectors to paper manufacturing, steel, glass, electronics, aviation, oil refining, and real estate, playing a crucial role in Japan's modernization. Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group's Mitsubishi Bank, established in 1919 and merged with The Bank of Tokyo in 1996, became Japan's largest bank. Mitsubishi Corporation, founded in 1950, is now Japan's largest trading company. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Motors, Mitsubishi Nuclear Energy, Mitsubishi Chemical, Mitsubishi Electric, and Nikon are all part of the Mitsubishi group. Having shared Japan's destiny for 150 years, Mitsubishi is now considered one of Japan's top three zaibatsu (conglomerates).5

Even in his later years, Glover continued to write the history of Japan's modernization. Japan's first beer began to be distributed in 1888 by the brewery founded by Glover in 1885. The beer produced at that time is Kirin Beer, which is still sold today. There is a story that Hannah, the daughter of Tsuru, named it 'Kirin' because Glover's beard resembled the mythical creature Kirin. Glover himself is said to have enjoyed drinking Kirin Beer produced by his company (Mckay 1993, 173). Although the taste may have changed slightly over more than a century, Kirin Beer can be considered a 'cultural asset available at convenience stores' in the sense that it may retain the palate of Europeans living in Japan at the time, including Glover, and Meiji-era Japanese.

In his later years, Glover's contributions to Japan's modernization were recognized, and in 1908, he was awarded the Second Class Order of the Rising Sun by Emperor Meiji, the first foreigner to receive such an honor, which was highly unusual at the time. The document commending Glover's achievements at that time reportedly exceeded 20 pages. With this final act, 5 Wikipedia. http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A 3. Glover's Wingbeats Trigger the Turbulent Modern History of Japan and Northeast Asia: Kurabaen, Glover passed away in Tokyo on December 16, 1911 (McKay 1993, 4). After his death, as if by coincidence (烏飛梨落), Japanese history took a downward turn, marked by imperialism, war, and invasion.

The Gust of Wingbeats Turns into a Typhoon

The Choshu Five, whom Glover initially supported, were key figures in the Meiji Restoration, which laid the foundation for Japan's development into a modern nation. Even after the Meiji Restoration, they led Japan, and their later actions have deep ties with Korea. Why was Ito Hirobumi, a statesman revered in Japan for establishing the foundation of modern Japan, assassinated by the Korean independence activist Ahn Jung-geun?

Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909) was primarily responsible for foreign affairs after the Imperial Restoration and gained significant attention after the deaths of the three great figures of the Meiji era (Jeong Il-seong 2002, 242). He then ousted Okuma Shigenobu, who held real power at the time, from the government and monopolized the trust of Emperor Meiji (Jeong Il-seong 2002, 254-255). Starting with his appointment as the first Prime Minister through the bureaucratic reform of 1885, Ito began to achieve great feats as the father of Japanese modernization in Japanese history, but at the same time, his persistent ill-fated relationship with Korea began (Jeong Il-seong 2002, 267-268). Although Western-style democratic systems were introduced in Japan with the successful Meiji Restoration, the political situation remained chaotic. At this time, the Prime Minister needed a solution to suppress the dissatisfaction of anti-government forces. Coincidentally, when the Donghak Peasant Revolution broke out and the Joseon government requested military aid from Qing China, Ito Hirobumi saw this as an opportunity to find stability within Japan through the invasion of Korea (Jeong Il-seong 2002, 62-65). Meticulously preparing, he initiated the First Sino-Japanese War, was involved in the Eulmi Incident, and played a leading role in concluding the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and the Russo-Japanese War, culminating in the signing of the Eulsa Treaty in 1905. As a result, he was appointed the first Resident-General of Korea the following year, reorganized the cabinet with pro-Japanese collaborators, and implemented various exploitative policies. In particular, using the dispatch of secret envoys to The Hague in 1907 as a pretext, he forced Emperor Gojong to abdicate, making him the "public enemy" of colonial Korea at the time (Jeong Il-seong 2002, 116-140).

Inoue Kaoru (1836-1915), no less than Ito Hirobumi, also has deep ties with Korea. Although he directly influenced and supported Korean enlightenment thinkers, he later led the Eulmi Incident. Inoue Kaoru interacted with Lee Dong-in, Eo Yun-jung, and Park Gyu-su, and provided financial and accommodation support for Kim Ok-gyun, Seo Gwang-beom, Yun Chi-ho, and Yu Gil-jun during their studies in Japan. 6 However, after being appointed Minister to Korea in 1894, he observed Empress Myeongseong maintaining close contact with Russia following the Triple Intervention and meticulously led the preparatory work to instigate the Eulmi Incident (Jeong Il-seong 2002, 79-87). 6 Wikipedia. http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/EB%A3%A8 3. Glover's Wingbeats Trigger the Turbulent Modern History of Japan and Northeast Asia: Kurabaen Both of the Choshu Five were deeply involved in the colonization of Korea, thus the young men whom Glover sent to study in England became a great wind that changed the fate of the neighboring country, Korea.

Meanwhile, Mitsubishi, where Glover served as an advisor in its early stages, grew in line with the trend of modernization. During the Pacific War, Mitsubishi grew significantly by producing military supplies such as kamikaze attack aircraft and submarines. This déjà vu is similar to the significant growth of Glover & Co. by supplying military goods around the collapse of the Shogunate system in the mid-1800s. At that time, Mitsubishi exploited labor by bringing in innocent people from Korea and China, which were Japanese colonies, to places like Hashima Island, subjecting them to inhumane treatment and wage theft to secure cheap, abundant labor for military production. This history has not ended even today. Korean victims of forced labor at that time recently won a lawsuit against Mitsubishi after a lengthy legal battle. Despite this dark past, Mitsubishi is known to still support right-wing forces in Japan and actively support the compilation of history-distorting textbooks.7

7 Wikipedia.http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EC%

Glover, A Butterfly That Caused Turmoil in Northeast Asia

The "butterfly effect" suggests that the flapping of a butterfly's wings in Seoul could cause a typhoon in Beijing tomorrow. In this regard, Glover can be compared to a butterfly. Even if his actions were purely for commercial motives, it is no exaggeration to say that without such individual activities, the Japan of today would not exist. Japan's case clearly took a different course than Korea or China, rapidly modernizing and economically developing, causing a turbulent history of war, invasion, and colonization in Northeast Asia like a typhoon, and that wind is still blowing. On May 1, 2014, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, during his visit to the UK, visited the University of London and inspected the monument commemorating the Choshu Five. 2013 marked the 150th anniversary of the Choshu Five setting foot on British soil, and the Japanese Embassy in the UK held a small commemorative ceremony to mark the occasion. Sitting in Kurabaen, where the trend initiated by Glover continues to this day, it feels as if the conversations of Glover and the key figures of that tumultuous Japanese history can be heard nearby. In this sense, Kurabaen can be seen as the origin of a great typhoon. Is Kurabaen not a deeply meaningful place not only for the Japanese but also for us East Asians? ■ 3. Glover's Wingbeats Trigger the Turbulent Modern History of Japan and Northeast Asia: Kurabaen

References Kim Yong-gu. 2006. 《World Diplomatic History》. Seoul: Seoul National University Press. Department of Diplomacy, College of Social Sciences, Seoul National University. 2012. 《Korean International Politics Scholars Meet Modern Japanese History》. Seoul: Seoul National University Press.

Jang Pal-hyun. 2005. 《History and Diplomacy of Japan: A General History from Ancient to Modern Times》. Seoul: Ajin.

Jeong Il-seong. 2002. 《Ito Hirobumi: Untold Stories》. Seoul: Jishik

Sanupsa.

BBC Scotland. 2011. “The Last Explorers, Thomas Blake Glover.”

December 15. Accessed June 21,

2014. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzvo31RrPqo . Brown, Sidney D. 1993. “Nagasaki in the Meiji Restoration: Choshu

Loyalists and British Arms Merchants.” CROSSROADS 1.

Accessed June 21,

2014. http://www.uwosh.edu/home_pages/faculty_

staff/earns/meiji.html.

McKay, Alexander. 1993. Scottish Samurai: Life of Thomas Blake Glover.

Edinburgh: Canongate Books Ltd.

Jang

A Place Holding the Secrets and Dreams of a City

_Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum

Ha Bo-ram

Catholic University

Introduction

On the second day of the Sarangbang 3rd cohort's Japan trip, we began our itinerary in Nagasaki on [Date]. On a drizzly morning, we visited Dejima, where we could glimpse the lives of the Dutch, and in the afternoon, we toured the beautiful Glover Garden. For lunch, we went to Chinatown and tasted the famous Nagasaki Champon. Our final activity of the day was visiting the Atomic Bomb Museum. I wanted to find the secrets and dreams that Nagasaki held here. Perhaps due to the weather, the city felt somewhat desolate, and to understand its secrets, I had to revisit the story from [Number] years ago. Only then could I find clues to Nagasaki's past pain and understand how that pain became Nagasaki's dream.

In [Year], the first atomic bombs in human history were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It was the final means chosen by the United States to end World War II. At that time, the U.S. held the upper hand in the war and was awaiting Japan's surrender, so the U.S. atomic bombing was essentially a last resort to hasten the end of the war and force unconditional surrender. However, the damage inflicted on Japan was too immense to be considered a mere price for minimizing U.S. casualties and shortening the war's duration and cost. In the end, the U.S. achieved its objective, but the consequences of the tragedy caused by the new weapon were horrific. Robert Oppenheimer, the research director of the U.S. nuclear weapons development project, said after the atomic bombing, realizing its horror: "I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds."

Why did Nagasaki have to become the site of such a horrific tragedy? And why do Korean international studies students gather here today, [Number] years later, to re-examine that event? We need to look back at the story in history to understand what the tragedy of Nagasaki in [Year] has to do with us living in [Current Year].

In the summer of [Year], the Atomic Bomb Museum is perhaps the quietest place in this quiet city. Although surprised by its larger-than-expected scale, the atmosphere was exactly as I had imagined. Everything felt frozen... As I entered the museum, the first thing that caught my eye was a wall clock showing [Time]:[Minutes]. This was the exact time the atomic bomb struck. The bomb's name was "Fat Man."

That atomic bomb, which devastated Nagasaki [Number] years ago and caused over [Number] casualties, was, as its name suggests, shaped like a plump person.

An Unforgettable Memory from the Summer of [Year]

Inside the exhibition hall, the devastation of Nagasaki city and Urakami Cathedral, reduced to ruins by the atomic bomb, was recreated. I saw fragments of destroyed buildings, photographs of the city that had vanished without a trace, and photos of the victims. It was so vivid, like witnessing the actual disaster site, that I suddenly became very scared.

The nuclear weapon that caused this devastation was a project ambitiously pursued by the United States. The U.S. began developing nuclear weapons for military purposes in the late [Year]s, and then-President Franklin D. Roosevelt showed great interest and actively supported this project. In [Month], [Year], documents regarding this secret project were first delivered to President Truman. This secret project was known as the "Manhattan Project"

and involved brilliant scientists from the United States, Britain, and Canada gathering in Los Alamos, New Mexico, to carry out the secret project. The cost invested in the project exceeded [Number] billion dollars, and the number of employees reached [Number] thousand.

In [Month], [Year], discussions were already being held in secret to decide the target locations for the atomic bombing in the United States. At that time, Hiroshima was included in the target list, and Nagasaki was not originally a planned target city. Specific discussions were also held regarding the risks of using the atomic bomb, the altitude and weather for the bombing, and contingency plans in case of mission failure.

Around the same time, the war in Europe ended with the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany, but the Pacific War with Japan showed no signs of ending. The United States carried out several bombings on the Japanese mainland to induce surrender, but Japan refused to yield, and the Allied forces were on the verge of invading the Japanese mainland, engaging in a full-scale war. Predictions indicated that a full-scale invasion would result in approximately [Number] Allied casualties and even more Japanese casualties. Japan's determination to fight to the end was evident in the Battle of Okinawa from [Month] to [Month], and the U.S. was concerned about additional casualties. The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff repeatedly urged the President to drop the atomic bomb to end the war as soon as possible. Former U.S. President Herbert Hoover strongly opposed the mainland invasion and urged Secretary of War Stimson to approve the atomic bombing.

On [Date], [Month], [Year], the first atomic bomb test was successfully conducted in Los Alamos, New Mexico, and all that remained was President Truman's decision to approve the attack on the Japanese mainland. During the Potsdam Conference in Berlin, President Truman, upon hearing the news of the successful atomic bomb test, was overjoyed and proposed a toast, saying that it would prevent the sacrifice of American soldiers on the mainland. Truman's diary entry during the Potsdam Conference mentions the specific timing and location of the atomic bombing: "This weapon will be used against Japan before August 6. I

have instructed Secretary of War Stimson to use it, and the targets will be soldiers, not women and children."

Japan's unwavering refusal of the unconditional surrender demanded by the U.S. at the time meant that demanding unconditional surrender alone would not help end the war. War Secretary McCloy argued that the Potsdam Declaration should include a provision for the preservation of the Japanese Emperor's position. He reasoned that without a clause guaranteeing the Emperor's survival, Japan would be unlikely to accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. The argument for modifying the surrender terms to guarantee the Japanese Emperor's continuation was continuously raised within the U.S. government until early [Month], just before the Potsdam Conference. However, the majority of government leaders still agreed to pursue the swift and effective method of the atomic bomb without consensus or consideration of the minimum acceptable surrender terms. There was essentially no sufficient discussion or consideration as to why the U.S. insisted on unconditional surrender only.

Stimson, the Secretary of War, was instructed to use it, and the targets would be the cities, not women and children.

children.

In fact, from [Month], [Year], the U.S. intelligence community had been decrypting communications from the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the codename "Magic." In [Year]

McCloy argued that the Potsdam Declaration should include a provision for the preservation of the Japanese Emperor's position. He reasoned that without a clause guaranteeing the Emperor's survival, Japan would be unlikely to accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. The argument for modifying the surrender terms to guarantee the Japanese Emperor's continuation was continuously raised within the U.S. government until early [Month], just before the Potsdam Conference. However, the majority of government leaders still agreed to pursue the swift and effective method of the atomic bomb without consensus or consideration of the minimum acceptable surrender terms. There was essentially no sufficient discussion or consideration as to why the U.S. insisted on unconditional surrender only.

In fact, from [Month], [Year], the U.S. intelligence community had been decrypting communications from the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs under the codename "Magic." In [Year]

From mid-May, the magic eavesdropping revealed to Truman and his staff that the Emperor was willing to surrender conditionally if the Allied Powers made demands more flexible than unconditional surrender. According to George Elsey, a naval officer on duty at the White House Situation Room at the time, the United States amended the Potsdam Declaration to allow for the preservation of the Emperor's status. Article of the revised Potsdam Declaration stated:

We demand the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces. If Japan does not comply,

we shall respond with prompt and utter destruction.

However, this amendment had the opposite effect. Japan understood that the United States had made a concession and that the war needed to be ended quickly. Prime Minister Suzuki Kantarō declared, "We will ignore this. We will make our utmost effort until the war is concluded," showing no intention of yielding. Foreign Minister Tōgō Shigenori sent a telegram to Ambassador Satō Naotake in Moscow stating that Japan would reject "unconditional surrender" and that the Emperor would not seek any Soviet mediation for a situation like unconditional surrender. Ultimately, Japan issued a statement rejecting the Potsdam Declaration on July 28, which became the final impetus for the US decision to drop the atomic bomb. U.S. Secretary of State James Byrnes, who wanted to avoid an extreme decision, was deeply discouraged, realizing that unconditional surrender from Japan could not be obtained without the use of the atomic bomb. I was very disappointed and realized that our hope of avoiding the use of the atomic bomb had effectively

disappeared.

The atomic bomb was transported across the Pacific to Tinian Island in the Mariana Islands. On the morning of August 6, 1945, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. On the morning of August 9, President Truman warned via radio broadcast, "The atomic bomb, which has brought about a revolutionary change in warfare, has been dropped on Hiroshima... If Japan does not surrender, another atomic bomb will be dropped on another location," and leaflets containing this warning were scattered throughout Japan. A message to the Japanese people:

The leaflet, titled "A Message to the Japanese People," stated that the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima because the Japanese military leaders had not accepted the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and that the Soviet Union had declared war on Japan. The Japanese cabinet ministers met to discuss a response to the Emperor. The Emperor, judging that continued warfare was impossible, decided to end the war immediately. 4. A Place That Holds the Secrets and Dreams of a City: Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum On August 9, Prime Minister Suzuki convened a supreme war council, but on the morning of the same day, along with the news of the Soviet Union's entry into the war, the second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki.

Even after the second atomic bomb, there was still internal division within the Japanese government regarding surrender. Army Minister Anami Korechika argued that "Japan still has the strength to fight." Junior officers plotted a coup d'état to thwart the surrender plan. Prime Minister Suzuki, judging that there was a faint hope in the darkness to preserve the Emperor, decided to accept the U.S. proposal. Ultimately, the Emperor accepted the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and announced the Imperial Rescript on the Termination of the Greater East Asia War (大東亜戦争終結ノ詔書) via radio broadcast. This broadcast was aired nationwide by NHK radio at noon on August 15, 1945. The following is an excerpt from the "Jewel Voice Broadcast" (玉音放送):

It has been the immutable principle of Our Imperial Ancestors, handed down through the ages, to ensure the peace of the realm and to promote the common welfare of all nations. It was for this reason that We declared war on the United States and Great Britain. It was never Our intention to impede the progress of East Asia or to infringe upon the sovereignty of other nations.

The welfare of Our Imperial subjects and the common prosperity of all nations have been the ultimate aim of Our Imperial policy. It is the immutable principle of Our Imperial Ancestors that We should promote the welfare of Our Imperial subjects and the common prosperity of all nations.

The reason for declaring war on the United States and Great Britain was also to ensure the peace of East Asia and to promote the common welfare of all nations.

It was never Our intention to impede the progress of East Asia or to infringe upon the sovereignty of other nations.

However, the state of war has now continued for nearly four years. Despite the valiant efforts of Our Imperial Army and Navy, despite the diligent endeavors of Our civil and military officials, and despite the devoted service of Our 100 million subjects, the tide of war has not necessarily turned in Japan's favor.

Moreover, the general trend of the world has not been altogether in Our favor. Furthermore, the enemy, in using a newly invented bomb, has begun to inflict damage and destruction upon innocent people without cessation, bringing the war to an unpredictable state.

To continue the war, therefore, would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but would also lead to the destruction of human civilization.

It is with the gravest concern, therefore, that We must now put an end to this war. We have commanded that the Imperial Government shall promptly take steps to carry out the terms of the joint declaration.

It is with the gravest concern, therefore, that We must now put an end to this war. We have commanded that the Imperial Government shall promptly take steps to carry out the terms of the joint declaration.

The enemy, in using a newly invented bomb, has begun to inflict damage and destruction upon innocent people without cessation, bringing the war to an unpredictable state. Moreover, the general trend of the world has not been altogether in Our favor.

To continue the war, therefore, would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but would also lead to the destruction of human civilization.

To continue the war, therefore, would not only result in an ultimate collapse and obliteration of the Japanese nation, but would also lead to the destruction of human civilization.

This is something that We must prevent at all costs. It is Our duty to protect the lives of Our subjects and to atone for the sins of Our ancestors. Therefore, We have commanded that the Imperial Government shall promptly take steps to carry out the terms of the joint declaration.

This is something that We must prevent at all costs. It is Our duty to protect the lives of Our subjects and to atone for the sins of Our ancestors. Therefore, We have commanded that the Imperial Government shall promptly take steps to carry out the terms of the joint declaration.

It is with the gravest concern, therefore, that We must now put an end to this war. We have commanded that the Imperial Government shall promptly take steps to carry out the terms of the joint declaration.

This is why the Imperial Government has now agreed to the joint statement.

The Emperor never directly used the word "surrender" and emphasized the devastating damage caused by the U.S.'s brutal attack. On September 2, 1945, Japan formally signed the instrument of surrender aboard the U.S. battleship Missouri, anchored in Yokohama. This is the story behind the two atomic bombings that ended World War II and the pain that Nagasaki carries.

Summer 1945, Nagasaki's Dream

What caught my eye at the Atomic Bomb Museum were the thousands of paper cranes hanging throughout the museum. They are said to represent the Nagasaki citizens' wish for peace. It's quite ironic. Nuclear weapons and peace – two things that seem incompatible coexist here, evoking Nagasaki's dream. Perhaps Nagasaki's cherished dream is that such a heartbreaking tragedy will never be repeated. Seeing the densely packed messages and paper cranes on the walls of the museum, it's paradoxical that a city that was reduced to ruins just 77 years ago has now become a symbol of peace.

Nagasaki Peace Park is located a short distance from the museum. The fountain, which was not turned on due to the rain, was said to symbolize the wings of a dove. The giant Peace Statue in the center of the park seemed like a guardian of peace watching over Nagasaki. It is a work by Kitamura Seibō (北村西望), a sculptor from Nagasaki. His right hand, pointing to the sky, represents the threat of the atomic bomb, while his left hand, extended horizontally, symbolizes peace. His closed eyes are said to pray for the souls of those who were sacrificed in the atomic bombing. The sculptor's words below the statue read:

That nightmarish war, the horrifying brutality and misery.

The pain of losing loved ones, the difficulty of even looking at another's child.

Who would not wish for peace?

Here, as a pioneer of the world peace movement, this Peace Statue was born.

Divine strength, the healthy physique of a strong man, thirty-two feet in length.

The right hand points to the atomic bomb, the left hand to peace.

The face prays for the souls of the war's victims.

Here, transcending race, a human, sometimes a Buddha, sometimes a god.

The greatest spiritual and mental effort since Nagasaki's founding.

Now, the symbol of humanity's highest hope.

Kitamura Seibō (北村西望), Spring 1955

Nagasaki and Korea

Why have Korean international students come here in 2023? As Koreans, there is a reason why we cannot view Nagasaki's pain as merely someone else's problem. In reality,

the atomic bombing in 1945 was perceived by Koreans solely as a symbol of liberation. However, the atomic bomb was not just a signal of liberation for Koreans. In fact, Koreans constituted the largest proportion of foreign victims of the atomic bombing. Yet, in the euphoria of national liberation, there was almost no consideration for Korean atomic bomb victims. It was not until 1961 that the Korean Atomic Bomb Victims Relief Association (later changed to the Korean Atomic Bomb Victims Association) was formed, and a lonely struggle began to assert their rights in both Korea and Japan.

The Japanese government established specialized hospitals immediately after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to conduct investigations, examinations, and medical treatment. However, until 1961, when the Korean Atomic Bomb Victims Association announced an estimated number of Korean victims based on the number of Koreans in Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the time of the bombing, neither the Korean nor the Japanese government had ever conducted a survey on the actual conditions of Korean atomic bomb victims.

Looking back at the past of Korean atomic bomb survivors begins with a re-examination of Korea's tragic history during the Japanese colonial period. Most of the Korean residents in Japan at the time were forcibly conscripted. From 1939, Japan began forced conscription, sending over one million Koreans to Japanese military bases, construction sites, and mines. Particularly in 1944, thousands of Korean youths were drafted or forced to work in army bases, military facilities, and munitions factories in Hiroshima city. Ichiba Junko, a former president of the Korean Atomic Bomb Victims Association who came to Japan as a conscript and witnessed the atomic bombing, stated, "Korean atomic bomb victims did not come to Japan of their own volition. If you think about it, they were all people forcibly brought to Japan as tools for Japan's war effort." Therefore, it is a matter that the Japanese government should take responsibility for and provide relief and compensation. However, during the 1965 normalization talks between Korea and Japan, Japan did not show any remorse for its colonial rule and attempted to resolve the issue of compensation claims through economic cooperation. Ichiba Junko Furthermore, in response to the compensation demands of the Korean Atomic Bomb Victims Association in 1991, Japan stated that the issue had been settled through the Korea-Japan agreements and refused to engage.

Korean atomic bomb victims are completely marginalized in this issue. The Japanese government has not officially issued any apology or acknowledged its wrongdoing, and the Korean government has not paid any attention to their voices. I was heartbroken to think that the indifference of the Korean government is more painful than the cold shoulder from the Japanese government towards Korean victims who were forcibly taken to Japan to work and suffered the atomic bombing decades ago. The issue of Korean atomic bomb survivors is not just a matter of compensation; it is also a tragic fragment of Korean history that has failed to hold Japan strictly accountable for its atrocities during the Japanese colonial period. The reason why Korean international students gather in Nagasaki in 2023 to empathize with the city's pain and wish for peace is likely because it reminds us of the pain we experienced long ago. Seeing the horrors they endured firsthand at the Atomic Bomb Museum, it is for the same reason that the suffering of our people overlapped.

Conclusion

2025 marks the anniversary of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki. Although 80 years have passed, the pain felt here is still vivid. I realized that this city, a symbol of peace, still harbors unhealed wounds. Its profound pursuit of peace deeply resonated with me. I left Nagasaki hoping that its dream would not be shattered and that it would become a beacon of hope for all the anxious and precarious places in the world. ■ 4. A Place That Holds the Secrets and Dreams of a City: Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum References: Kwak Gwi-hoon, "I Wanted to Ask Japan About Its War Responsibility, Even If It Was Just One Point."

Shin Dong-A, April issue

Ichiba Junko, "Korea's Hiroshima." Translated by Lee Je-soo. Seoul: History Criticism Press. Korean Atomic Bomb Victims Association Official Website

(Accessed [Date]).