[9th EAI Academy] ⑦ South Korea's Climate and Environment Diplomacy

YouTube Link : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhq8iiW3KMg

Video Script

Career Exploration and Academic Motivation

Today's topic is South Korea's climate and environmental diplomacy. I am Lee Tae-dong from the Department of Political Science and International Relations at Yonsei University, and I will be leading this lecture. It's a pleasure to meet you all. I am impressed that you are here. It's not easy to attend a class on a hot August evening, and one could easily choose not to. But you are all here, champions. I will touch upon today's subject, but perhaps we could also discuss career paths if you are interested? I thought we could start with that. My teaching philosophy itself is centered on how to provide education, research, and service that benefits students' career development.

So, when I drink soju, I always drink Chamisul. Or Jinro Fresh. Looking around, it seems there are many university students. There are a few master's students as well, but have you all decided on your career paths? Raise your hand if you have. Good. If you're comfortable sharing later, it would be great to hear about it, but it's okay if you don't. Rather than me just talking, let's make this more interactive. If you have any questions or comments, please feel free to speak up. I understand the format can be rigid and difficult, but if I'm the only one talking, you'll all get sleepy.

I'll get sleepy too. Careers. I've written two books on career development. Have any of you seen these books? I'm not trying to sell them. You don't have to buy them. I didn't write these alone. When I was the head of the Department of Political Science and International Relations at Yonsei University, we offered a course on career development in the graduate program, reflecting our teaching philosophy. As we offered the course, I thought it would be good to share this valuable content through books rather than just having it as a one-off class. So, the first book I wrote was 'Career Development for Political Science and International Relations Majors.' I strongly advocated for the subtitle 'What Can You Do to Make a Living in Political Science?'

This book, 'Career Development for Political Science and International Relations Majors,' primarily covers the conventional career paths that people often pursue after majoring in political science, especially in social sciences. These include becoming a diplomat, working in international organizations, passing civil service exams (like the Higher Civil Service Examination), or pursuing careers in journalism, academia, or research. It details what to prepare for and what these roles entail. Whenever possible, we invited professionals from these fields to our classes to share their experiences, and we included that content.

The next year, we thought, what else can we do? Since we've covered the conventional paths, let's think about the future. What career paths should we prepare for as political science majors in the future? So, we wrote another book in a similar format, covering diverse future-oriented and interdisciplinary careers in politics, such as those in culture, entrepreneurship, environment, and education. This book was co-authored by students and edited by me. It's titled 'Future Careers for Political Science and International Relations Majors.' Again, I'm not trying to sell the book. You don't have to buy it; it's available in libraries. If you're interested, you might wonder, 'What do I really want to do?'

What aligns well with my strengths? I hope you'll ponder these questions. I'd like to share a few thoughts. My educational philosophy is to help students find their career paths and become happy individuals. I consider myself a very happy person. Being a professor at Yonsei University certainly contributes to that happiness, but more importantly, I'm happy because I've found work that I enjoy, collaborate with great people, engage in meaningful activities, and achieve results. I am happy.

I am happy not only professionally but also in my personal and family life. However, I want my students to experience the same happiness. This is my constant thought, whether it's in this one-time special lecture, an undergraduate seminar, or when teaching graduate students. Our department is quite large, with nearly 100 students per year. I primarily focus on educating graduate students these days. I am very proud of my graduate students. I have supervised over 30 students for their master's and doctoral degrees, and nearly 100% of them are now...

...pursuing their desired careers and working in fields they are passionate about. It's not solely my achievement; my students are the ones who excelled. But what is my role? I always ask. When students come to me for supervision, the first question is, 'What do you want to do?' 'Ah, I want to do this.' 'Well, then you shouldn't come to me.' 'I want to become a diplomat.' 'Ah, then you should go and study hard.' There are various paths, and you need to pass exams, right? You can pursue this after a master's degree, but there are many different career paths. Or, 'I want to work in a public enterprise.' I collaborate with various entities, such as KEPCO, and also with international organizations if students wish to work there. I also work closely with research institutes if students aspire to become researchers.

Therefore, I strive to help students understand what these career paths entail and how to develop the necessary skills. If someone wants to go into politics, I often connect them with politicians like members of the National Assembly, with whom I collaborate frequently. I facilitate introductions, and then they must take initiative themselves. That's a good thing. One of the most crucial elements in this process is experiencing a moment of profound realization. I call this the 'Aha! moment.' It's not a formal term, but it's that moment when you hit your knee and exclaim, 'Ah, this would be fun!' Do any of you have such moments?

The Beginning of Climate Change Research and Academic Inquiry

Ah, I hope you do. Such moments can arise from various sources. I entered university in '94. You can probably guess my birth year. Back then, about 90% of students entering Political Science and International Relations aimed to become diplomats. They simply didn't know any better. I was the same. What does a high school student know about political science? So, I came to study political science with the goal of becoming a diplomat. However, I wasn't good at exams. I'm not good at memorizing. During my university years, I participated in student group activities like the Korea-Japan Student Conference, which involved socializing and academic conferences. We formed teams of three. The topic we discussed was 'How should Korea and Japan respond to China's transboundary pollution?'

At that time, I didn't even know what 'transboundary' meant. I thought it was related to crossing borders. It wasn't. It meant 'transboundary.' That's when I had my 'Aha!' moment. I realized, 'This is something I would find fun and meaningful.' I always pursue two things: enjoyment and meaning. Since then, for the past 31 years, I have been researching and educating on environment, energy, and climate change. You never know when that moment might strike. It could happen while reading a book, listening to a lecture, or watching TV. However, the most effective approach involves three questions: What do I want to do? What can I do? What must I do? When these three align, leading to a fulfilling career with meaning and enjoyment—that's the 'Aha!' moment. I understand you are here because you are interested in diplomacy. Diplomacy encompasses many fields, and there is much work to be done. I hope you will reflect on these aspects. Nowadays, there are many diverse opportunities.

These opportunities are not difficult to find. The reason I called you all 'champions' is because it's remarkable. After a long day, wouldn't you rather relax at home with Netflix and a beer, especially on a rainy day? Who would want to come here and listen? You are truly exceptional. However, it's crucial to continuously seek out these opportunities and connect them to your career paths. In this process, people and networks are incredibly important. Especially when I was an undergraduate, professors sometimes provided such opportunities.

You know your professors, and your professors know you. You know your professors. If a professor knows you and discusses your career with you, they won't harm you. We just have a meal together. We don't harm people or students. So, if you're interested in a particular field, there are networks within that field, whether large or small. It's important to utilize these networks and not be overly intimidated. However, abruptly approaching a professor without attending their classes or performing well might be awkward. So, based on my experience, Professor Moon Chung-in at my university was somewhat similar to me. His first question was always, 'What do you want to do?'

At that time, I expressed my interest in environmental and energy issues. I was a sophomore then. He said, 'Great. I know of a place called the Nautilus Institute in Berkeley that is looking for summer interns. Would you like to go?' 'What would I do there?' In '94 and '95, various events were unfolding, but the North Korean nuclear issue was a prominent concern. It was just beginning to emerge. Do you know the fundamental reason North Korea developed nuclear weapons amidst various demands at that time? Do you know the rationale they presented for developing nuclear weapons to attack the US? Why did they do it? North Korea's reason was the need for energy. Since they are not an oil-producing country, they pursued nuclear energy due to its cost-effectiveness. So, the Nautilus Institute proposed providing renewable energy to prevent North Korea from reprocessing nuclear materials and developing nuclear weapons. At that time, the situation was similar, though much more advanced now. They suggested small-scale hydropower (not hydrogen), as large-scale hydropower requires dams, or utilizing wind power. By providing such energy sources, they could meet North Korea's energy needs without enabling nuclear weapons development. I participated in that project.

This was in '94 or '95. Looking back, it was a very sound approach. If it had succeeded, perhaps the current nuclear issue might have been averted, but it was a persuasive mechanism to counter the rationale for nuclear development. Various individuals provided such opportunities. Professors might be busy, but if you attend their classes and perform well, you can ask them, 'Are there any such opportunities?' Most educators and researchers genuinely want their students to succeed. Please consider this. I often discuss two things. Are there any of you interested in international organizations? No? That's strange. Many people interested in diplomacy want to work in international organizations. Why? Does it seem too difficult? Do you not know how to proceed? Have you ever explored international organizations online? I have. When I decide to do something, I just do it. If I hesitate, I won't get it done. Ultimately, for various reasons...

However, they don't accept undergraduate interns. Internships there don't even provide a salary. There are simply too many applicants. But someone offered me an opportunity. While interning at a place called the Green Korea United, my supervisor moved to the UN. She was working at ESCAP in Thailand and asked, 'Tae-dong, would you like to intern here?' Of course. She offered me one of her two rooms. We remain good friends to this day. So, I interned there for about three months.

Think carefully about that. So I often talk about two things. Are there any people who want to go to international organizations? No. That's strange. Many diplomats want to go to international organizations. Why does it seem too difficult? I don't know how to do it. Have you ever interned at an international organization? I have. When I decide to do something, I just do it. If I hesitate, I can't do it. Ultimately, for various reasons.

However, they don't accept undergraduate interns. In fact, they don't pay interns. There are many people who want to do it, so there are many applicants. But regarding the opportunity given to me, my supervisor at the Green Korea United, where I interned, went to the UN. He was working at UNSCAP in Thailand, and he asked me, 'Tadong, would you like to come here and intern?' I said yes. He had two rooms, and I stayed in one. We are still good friends. So I interned there for about three months.

At ESCAP, in the Environmental Division. It was very enjoyable. We had peers, bright and energetic like yourselves, coming together with similar interests, socializing, and working. It was quite fun. However, after that experience, I realized that working in an international organization wasn't for me. Why wasn't it a good fit? It wasn't because of my personality, but rather because the primary focus of international organizations is on 'work.' 'Work.' 'Work.' Meaning, what is done in a profession, and what output is generated.

Regarding career paths, what do people do in international organizations? What is their work? What do they do? What is the profession of someone working in an international organization? Ah, I know you don't work there, but what do you think? Cocktail parties. Those are important. Cocktail parties are indeed important. What do people do in international organizations? In a nutshell, what is it? Ah, haven't you studied International Organizations? Did you learn too much theory? What do you think they do? Are international organizations just quiet places? Yes. The primary role of international organizations is coordination. Coordination towards what objective? Why is that?

Who are the members of an international organization? Are you members? No. The members are states. But are there only a few states? No, there are many. And each state has different objectives. All of these must be coordinated. Are states the only members? No. There are also corporations, NGOs, and citizens. There are also experts. All of these must be coordinated. I may have taken on the role of a general affairs director in political science, but I am not suited for general affairs. I prefer researching things that I find personally interesting.

Working in an international organization is also suited for certain individuals. The person who offered me the opportunity is someone who excels at general affairs and coordination in any setting. It's a perfect fit for them. Therefore, it's crucial to understand the specific duties of a particular career path. Otherwise, you might later realize, 'This isn't for me.' You might fail or get lost, but you need to know what you'll be doing in the career you choose and whether it's a good fit for you.

Can you do this for a long time? You can also change. Some people enjoy doing this and then that, while others prefer stability. I prefer stability and working with various stakeholders. It varies from person to person. Nowadays, there are programs available. I used to run the first one. I believe Sungkyunkwan University is currently operating it. It's the Ministry of Environment's International Environmental Expert Training Program for Environmental Public Deliberation. Have you heard of it?

Have you? Okay, it's fine if you haven't. You've heard of it now. What happens here is that we select 30 to 40 individuals per month and provide training in Korea for about a month. We used to do this. Yonsei University, the Yonsei Institute for East and West Studies, and myself, along with Dr. Sun, were involved. For about 15 years, we have continuously sent students abroad. We provide airfare and living expenses to support students in gaining international organization experience for about three to six months. Another advantage is that I mentioned earlier that undergraduates can enter international organizations, right? It's difficult. There are already many graduate students, so they rarely accept undergraduates. However, this program provides a pathway. The individuals who have participated are your seniors, and they are doing well.

Therefore, participating in this program leads to positive outcomes. For undergraduates, a similar program is the Korea Meteorological Administration's International Meteorology and Climate Expert Training Program. I have also lectured there for several years. These opportunities could be beneficial for you. If you are interested in international organizations but have been too shy to express it, consider trying these programs. I believe they will provide you with a chance to determine if they are a good fit for you. The lecture has ended. But I shouldn't stop here.

South Korea's Climate Change Response Goals and Challenges

If you have any questions about these career paths, please ask. It seems everyone here has gotten into good universities. No questions? Okay. Then, let's talk about climate change. You will hear many different things about climate change. The global greenhouse gas emissions per year, in CO2 equivalent (CO2e), which accounts for the varying warming impacts of methane and other greenhouse gases alongside carbon dioxide, are approximately 55 billion tons.

It's not a bad idea to remember this number. How much greenhouse gas does South Korea emit annually? It's about 700 million tons. However, as of 2022, we have committed to reducing emissions by 40% by 2030 and achieving carbon neutrality (net-zero) by 2050. Net-zero means the amount of emissions minus the amount absorbed equals zero. You might not grasp the scale yet. Have any of you tried to lose weight? I haven't. I always say I will start tomorrow.

I won't ask about your weight. Think about your own weight. Has anyone lost 10% of their body weight? 20%? People who have done that are called 'determined' or 'disciplined.' Losing 40% of your body weight means a 70kg person losing 28kg. That's no small feat. And by when? By 2030. We need to reduce emissions from 700 million tons to 280 million tons. Why is it so hard to lose weight? Because we eat too much, are too lazy to exercise, and are too accustomed to our habits. When we eat samgyeopsal, we drink soju, and after drinking soju, we crave dessert, and that's human nature.

It's a familiar system. The same applies to the Earth and the economy. We are too accustomed to fossil fuels because they are cheap and convenient. This is because the system has revolved around them, and moreover, significant profits are at stake. Therefore, changing the system is incredibly difficult. Let me elaborate on this. Do you know South Korea's GDP? GDP, not GDP. It's good to know these figures. That's correct. Please give me a gift later. Ah, I rushed out with a book. Yes. It's about 2,000 trillion won.

2,000 trillion won. What is South Korea's annual budget? That's right. It's about 650 trillion won. So, one-third of that is the national budget. This is a slightly more challenging question. What is the size of South Korea's energy market? Approximately. I've given you the figures of 2,000 trillion and 650 trillion for comparison. But what is the approximate size of this energy market? It's about 200 trillion won. 200 trillion won. While that number seems large and distant, a mere 2% shift in the energy mix results in 4 trillion won changing hands.

The overall pie doesn't grow significantly. What is the energy mix? Currently, coal-fired power plants account for a certain portion, but this needs to be reduced, and renewable energy must be utilized. That's the energy mix. It refers to the choice of energy sources for electricity generation, whether to use primary energy sources. Even a 1% change in this mix involves 2 trillion won changing hands. A 2% change involves 4 trillion won. People risk their lives over this. That's why transitioning this system is absolutely not easy. So, why do we keep hearing about 1.5 degrees or 2 degrees, and why must we achieve carbon neutrality? Ultimately, at 1.5 degrees, heatwaves and extreme temperatures increase dramatically, coral reefs perish, climate refugees and impoverished populations grow, and water scarcity affects more people.

Not only humans but also terrestrial ecosystems, sea-level rise, and glacial melt will be significantly impacted. I am the director of the National R&D Project for Climate Change Adaptation Living Lab. It's a project of approximately 7 billion won, running for six years, with about 45 people working on it. One of our sites is in Tongyeong. Tongyeong. Have you been to Tongyeong? It's a beautiful place. What is Tongyeong famous for? Yes. You're doing well. Oysters are famous. Tongyeong has a developed fishery industry.

Political and Economic Implications of Climate Change

However, one of Tongyeong's problems is that the fish species that used to be caught are no longer caught. This is due to changes in ocean currents and sea temperatures. We eat what we are used to. We don't typically eat colorful, elongated fish. When we see unfamiliar species, we wonder, 'What is this?' and avoid them. Consequently, the variety of fish caught decreases. So, what can be done? We can stop eating fish. That's an option. But if we want to continue eating fish, what must we do? We must farm them. What is that called? Aquaculture. However, aquaculture requires a stable water temperature, typically maintained between 24 and 26 degrees Celsius. But the water gets too hot, sometimes rising to 28 degrees Celsius. This makes it difficult for oysters, rockfish (black sea bass), and other seafood to grow properly. They often die off. These events are actually happening due to excessively high water temperatures. Therefore, we are using living labs to find solutions, and this is a detailed task within our R&D project. It's not just on paper; when you go there, you see dead fish being removed daily due to spoilage and odor. These situations are occurring frequently. Thus, diverse solutions are needed, and politics, political economy, and ODA play particularly crucial roles. Some still ask, 'Why study climate change in political science?' However, political science can play a vital role in climate change, energy, and the environment. This is because we examine everything from managing small organisms to interstate relations, trade, commerce, finance, and how systems impact other countries. Furthermore, security...

...security is also an important aspect, as is how to improve the conditions in developing and underdeveloped countries. Therefore, political science is truly important for understanding climate change and the environment. Another point is that the typical unit of analysis in political science is the state. However, entities other than states, such as cities and corporations, are also very important. This is because the top ten companies are responsible for about 50% of South Korea's greenhouse gas emissions.

In terms of industries, pronouncing it correctly is important: 'cement, coal, steel, petrochemical.' These are the first syllables. For industries starting with 'C' (시) that emit a lot of greenhouse gases, what is it? Cement. What starts with 'B' (발)? Power generation. 'A' (알) is aluminum. 'S' (철) is steel. 'P' (석) is petrochemical. These five are the largest emitting industries. Ten companies in these sectors account for 50% of South Korea's greenhouse gas emissions. Then, someone might say, 'But we can use tumblers, right? Isn't individual effort important?' Of course, individual effort is important, but we must identify the root causes and address them.

Therefore, what political science often focuses on is how to create institutions. Since institutions are created by actors with specific values, cities, local governments, and corporations as actors are indeed very important. One might think, 'Cities are handled by urban engineers, and corporations by business administrators.' That's not entirely true. The subject of my doctoral dissertation was 'Global Cities and Climate Change.' I am a researcher of international relations concerning climate change in cities.

Instead of focusing on states, I studied how cities cooperate, interact across borders, learn from each other, and collaborate, even when states do nothing. I call this 'Translocalations.' In Korean, it's not 'trans-local relations' or 'local-transcendental relations,' but 'Trans' means transcending, and 'Local' means local. Thus, I primarily study the cross-border interactions of cities, particularly concerning climate change and energy issues. I've been doing this for about 15 or 16 years. Now, I'm looking at corporations because they are one of the most significant actors. Of course, I also examine states and cities. A paper published today analyzes ESG reports in the Korean manufacturing sector over ten years using LM and STML (Structural Topic Modeling). These are the kinds of topics I focus on these days. This slide shows the climate change responsibilities and roles of developed and developing countries. It's a bit difficult to see, but ultimately, the US and Europe are the cause. This represents cumulative emissions. The country emitting the fastest and most is China. It is currently number one. Although China is currently the largest emitter, its emissions since 1990 are less than those of the US and Europe, which emitted heavily before that. India's emissions are also increasing rapidly. South Korea's emissions are not as large. However, relative to its economic size, they are quite significant. Therefore, this issue is very complex. It's referred to as 'common but differentiated responsibilities.' If this principle isn't followed, developed countries like the US or Europe might say, 'You are currently emitting the most; if you don't reduce the emissions of developing countries, we will not act.' This is why the Kyoto Protocol collapsed. At that time, only developed countries had obligations, while developing countries did not. Did South Korea have an obligation under the Kyoto Protocol? No. We were always considered a developing country, not a developed one.

It appears so, but ultimately the United States and Europe are the cause. This is cumulative emissions. The country emitting the fastest and most is China. It is currently number one. Although it emits the most currently, China's emissions have been since 1990, so they are less compared to the United States and Europe, which have been emitting a lot since before then. India is also increasing rapidly. South Korea's emissions are not that large. However, they are quite large relative to its economic size. Therefore, this is very difficult. This is called 'common but differentiated responsibilities.' If this is not done, developed countries, such as the United States or Europe, will say, 'You are currently emitting the most, and if you do not reduce the emissions of developing countries, we will not act.' This is why the Kyoto Protocol failed. At that time, only developed countries had obligations, while developing countries did not. Did South Korea have an obligation until the Kyoto Protocol? No. We were always considered a developing country, not a developed one.

responsibilities. If this is not followed, developed countries, such as the US or Europe, might say, 'You are currently emitting the most; if you do not reduce the emissions of developing countries, we will not act.' This is why the Kyoto Protocol collapsed. At that time, only developed countries had obligations, while developing countries did not. Did South Korea have an obligation or not under the Kyoto Protocol? Until the Kyoto Protocol, we did not. Yes. We were always considered a developing country, not a developed one.

responsibilities. If this is not followed, developed countries, such as the US or Europe, might say, 'You are currently emitting the most; if you do not reduce the emissions of developing countries, we will not act.' This is why the Kyoto Protocol collapsed. At that time, only developed countries had obligations, while developing countries did not. Did South Korea have an obligation or not under the Kyoto Protocol? Until the Kyoto Protocol, we did not. Yes. We were always considered a developing country, not a developed one.

In 2019, China emitted approximately 10 billion tons, while the US emitted 5.5 billion tons. This represents one-tenth of the total 55 billion tons. China's emissions show a dramatic difference compared to the 1960s. Therefore, it is important to consider not only historical emissions, i.e., accumulated responsibility, but also current emissions.

The US is clearly in second place, and India is a country whose emissions are increasing very rapidly. The contributions of developed and developing countries are sometimes viewed as a 70:30 ratio. Since it is a common problem, how to divide this responsibility is crucial. The UNFCCC was established to address these issues. Before 2015, there was the Kyoto Protocol, and after that, the Paris Agreement.

My research focuses on compliance. Compliance means adhering to the law when it exists. The core of the Kyoto Protocol was that only 38 developed countries with high greenhouse gas emissions were obligated to reduce their emissions. South Korea's period of high historical greenhouse gas emissions was in the 1970s and 1980s, so it was not included. In contrast, the UK has been emitting since the Industrial Revolution.

Many countries, including South Korea, were excluded from the Kyoto Protocol. My research analyzes UNFCCC data to show that the 38 countries did not bear equal responsibility. Some countries emitted greenhouse gases from long ago, while others like Canada and Australia emitted relatively later. Therefore, the same rules were not applied to all countries. My research considered this by applying differentiated emission reduction targets for each country and calculating annual emissions to assess compliance levels. The area below the red line indicates non-compliance, while the area above indicates exceeding targets. Not all countries complied with the climate change agreements.

We analyzed the reasons why some countries complied and others did not. Industrial structure plays a significant role. The hypothesis is that countries with a manufacturing-centered industrial structure find it more difficult to achieve targets. Additionally, perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors are important factors. Our research identified consumption as a key factor.

The higher the consumption level, the less likely compliance is. Consumption includes importing and using foreign goods. Increased consumption leads to increased emissions and waste, which in turn leads to increased production, trade, and waste. While consumption is often seen as a virtue, the fact that higher consumption makes compliance more difficult is a significant point from an International Political Economy (IPE) perspective.

The Kyoto Protocol ended as many countries withdrew. The two most significant features of the 2015 Paris Agreement are: First, approximately 200 countries participated, not just 38. Second, each country sets its own targets through NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions), develops implementation plans, and reduces emissions.

Each country continuously reports on its set targets. Our research analyzes which countries are actually fulfilling their commitments, how much they are achieving the Paris Agreement goals, and what factors influence this. Innovation has emerged as a very important factor. In this way, climate change agreements, international law, and international political economy can be studied and understood from the perspective of international politics. Trade and carbon border adjustments are also important issues. Although the imposition of tariffs by the Trump administration has made carbon border adjustments somewhat questionable, trade impacts international production and consumption activities.

The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) imposes tariffs on products with high carbon emissions. This is being promoted primarily in Europe, and the basic idea is that other countries must reduce their carbon emissions to export to Europe.

The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism is being implemented in Europe and will be a significant point of discussion at the US-Korea summit. CBAM involves imposing additional taxes according to the carbon border adjustment system. We need to analyze how this will affect our industries, particularly the five industries mentioned earlier.

The cement industry is not significantly affected because its production and consumption are domestic, with low export ratios. The power generation industry is also not problematic as electricity exports are difficult. The steel, aluminum, and petrochemical industries could be affected. The petrochemical industry, in particular, faces challenges with additional tariffs on exports. Thus, regulations like carbon border adjustments are not confined to a single country but also impact trade.

The Link Between Climate Change and Security

Let's examine the relationship between climate change and security. My paper provides an overview of how climate change should be understood in international politics. I believed it was important to identify and introduce the problems.

What is the definition of security? Security means a state of comfort without danger. It is important to maintain a state of comfort without external threats. You should be able to explain key concepts in your own words.

Security is about protecting the survival and assets of citizens and the nation. I believe security involves ensuring survival from various internal and external threats, pursuing well-being and comfort, and protecting material assets for these purposes.

The number of deaths and property damage from war is immense. However, the damage from recent large-scale wildfires in California and Australia is also substantial. In California, approximately 130,000 square kilometers were lost, and a similar area burned in Australia.

The area burned by wildfires in Australia reached 120,000 square kilometers. The area affected by wildfires in California is 130,000 square kilometers. This is a larger area than South Korea, which is approximately 100,000 square kilometers. You can think of it as a square area of about 330km x 330km.

In California and Australia, 130,000 and 120,000 square kilometers of land were lost, respectively. This poses a threat to the survival of countless people, animals, and plants, along with immense property damage. While war damage is also significant, if such damage occurs constantly, it becomes a security issue. Climate crisis negatively impacts people's survival and property, thus it should be viewed as a security issue.

The impact of climate change on security can be explained through various mechanisms. It increases infrastructure vulnerability and reduces adaptive capacity, thereby posing a threat to security by increasing human and property damage. Food security is also a critical issue. If the problem of sustenance is not resolved, security is threatened.

There are several reasons for the recent rise in food prices. For instance, the mortality rate of rockfish in Tongyeong reached 80%, reducing the supply to the market and causing prices to increase. Similarly, the price of beef has risen due to wildfires in Australia and California. This is because the wildfires killed cattle or destroyed their grazing land.

The reduction in cattle population and lack of grazing land due to wildfires led to increased feed costs. Furthermore, rising insurance premiums for wildfire damage also contributed to the increase in beef prices.

One of the reasons for the rising beef prices in countries like the United States due to climate change, in addition to wildfires, is the significant drop in grain production when temperatures become too high. Grain production inevitably decreases. This is not limited to grains; the same applies to the oceans. Climate security is directly linked to food security because climate alters everything, including water, wind, soil, and temperature. The high price of your food is not solely due to tariffs; ultimately, reduced production leads to increased prices. Climate change is one of the most fundamental causes of this reduced production.

These factors interact complexly, with energy, food, and various other elements closely impacting security. Climate change also causes direct damage. For example, at POSCO, where I work, during Typhoon Hinnamnor in 2022, it rained 100mm per hour for four hours. While this might seem like about 40cm of rain, the situation was not that simple.

Water flows to lower elevations. It flowed into dry riverbeds. Water flowed into dry streams used by people, such as Yangjaecheon and Anyangcheon. As the dry riverbed next to Pohang Steel Mill overflowed, water entered POSCO. The POSCO incident shares similarities with the Fukushima nuclear power plant explosion. Fukushima was a nuclear power plant, and POSCO is a steel company; one might wonder what they have in common. Do you know how the Fukushima nuclear accident occurred?

There was a tsunami. A 10-meter tsunami overwhelmed an 8-meter seawall, causing flooding. Nuclear power plants are built to be extremely robust, capable of withstanding missile attacks. They are constructed with thick concrete and do not explode from flooding. Isn't that strange? Why did it explode from flooding alone, despite being strong enough to withstand missile attacks? Isn't that strange? One reason is that in areas with many concentrated factories and industrial facilities, electrical equipment is often placed underground.

Electrical equipment is often moved underground. Then, the water overflowed. Where did that water go? Exactly, underground. What happens when it goes underground? A power outage occurs. When water comes into contact with electrical equipment, especially seawater, it causes a power outage. But why is this a problem? Nuclear power plants require continuous cooling, which is achieved by circulating water. Most nuclear power plants are located by the sea to facilitate water circulation. Water does not circulate on its own. What circulates the water?

Motors circulate the water. However, due to the power outage, there is no electricity. Will the motors that circulate the cooling water operate? No, they will not. Ultimately, the reactor temperature continued to rise, leading to an explosion. The explosion was not caused by the tsunami directly hitting the power plant, but by the tsunami damaging the plant's electrical systems. The temperature kept rising because cooling was not maintained. POSCO likely did not anticipate a similar accident, as it had never happened before.

However, the rain, which fell at 100mm per hour for four hours, caused the dry riverbed to overflow and flood into POSCO, causing a complete power outage in the underground electrical facilities and halting the blast furnaces. A blast furnace is a type of furnace used for smelting. Once a blast furnace stops, it cannot be reused and must be discarded entirely. This resulted in immense losses. This is precisely a security issue. Additionally, when the citizens of Pohang were trying to move their cars, worth 20 to 30 million won, out of underground parking lots, we advised the residents to move their cars from the underground parking lots due to the rain.

About ten people died while trying to retrieve their cars. This is a matter directly related to survival. Although it was not an external invasion, the safety, survival, and damage to the nation and its people due to climate change are increasing. Responding to this is climate change adaptation. Reducing greenhouse gases addresses the cause and is called mitigation. Responding to these various changes is called adaptation. This is also connected to security issues. Do you have any questions?

We will have a break, so don't worry. The lecture will conclude at the scheduled time. If you wish to finish earlier, that can also be arranged. Nevertheless, if you have any questions, please ask them before you forget. Yes. Hello. I am. Nice to meet you. Yes. Regarding climate change, are you suggesting that not only states but also corporations can be actors? Yes. Yes. In the data you showed earlier, the US's 200 million... the US's 200 million approximately.

That is correct. Looking at corporations, many American companies are located in China. In reality, many factories are located in China, but their nationality or ownership is American. Recently, there seems to be a trend of the international order being reorganized around the United States. In particular, the US is trying to strengthen its domestic manufacturing. In that context, what will be the US's actions regarding climate? That is an excellent question. First, the US's greenhouse gas emissions will increase rapidly. The US had previously moved its manufacturing industries, such as steel, shipbuilding, and petrochemicals, overseas. Now, if they bring these back within their own territory, it is a simple speculation that they might easily regain the number one position they ceded to China.

As manufacturing, especially industries that emit a lot of greenhouse gases, develops, greenhouse gas emissions will also increase. I believe this is one of the underlying reasons. Former President Trump's statement that renewable energy and climate change are hoaxes is also seen in this context. It is within the context of reviving American manufacturing. If this is not a hoax, then they will have to take responsibility. I believe it is within that context.

Development Cooperation and Decarbonization Technology Trends

Development cooperation is also one of the important areas. Developing countries are suffering the most significant damage despite having emitted very little greenhouse gas historically. How to solve this problem is a major question. Development cooperation, such as the Green Climate Fund mentioned in the Paris Agreement, is necessary. The paper I just showed you analyzes the effectiveness of such ODA (Official Development Assistance). There are various methodologies, including climate-related ODA and finance, and this paper analyzes which is the most effective.

Regarding development cooperation, this is decoupling. China is also gradually decoupling. That is, economic growth is occurring, but the increase in carbon emissions is decreasing. While there are various reasons for this, it is because China is developing low-carbon technologies and industries such as renewable energy and electric vehicles. Currently, China is number one in the renewable energy sector, not the US. This has been the case for quite some time, and they are now at a level that is almost impossible to catch up to. Therefore, I believe that if the US maintains this trend, especially if it remains passive in renewable energy and electric vehicles, it will face difficulties in the long run, even if it seems beneficial initially.

Which comes first? Given that it is already difficult to catch up to China's technological and industrial level, it will be truly difficult to catch up in the renewable energy sector in four years. This is because it is a rapidly developing field. Therefore, I believe this could be a significant strategic mistake. The same applies to our country. In the past, there was a period when renewable energy policies were significantly curtailed in South Korea. It was during the government you are thinking of.

They curtailed it by conducting prosecutorial investigations into subsidy payments, questioning not only renewable energy technology but also the subsidy payments themselves, although corruption should not exist. When China already dominates the market and we are lagging behind in many aspects, who would want to engage in renewable energy projects if they have to face prosecutorial investigations? Consequently, South Korea's renewable energy technology capabilities have also significantly declined. It is difficult to catch up even after years of effort because other countries are developing at an astonishing pace. Such judgments must be made carefully. Although there is much debate about nuclear power, if we decide not to pursue it and do not train the related personnel, our technological capabilities will decline.

This is not a matter of whether to pursue it or not, but ultimately who decides. The market does not decide. This is precisely why politics is important. Politics is the authoritative allocation of values. It is about deciding which values and with what authority they will be allocated. Therefore, if we dismiss renewable energy as a climate change hoax and do not invest in it for five years, our already lagging technological capabilities will fall further behind, making it difficult to catch up.

This study revealed that green ODA is not simply given away. It empirically demonstrates that economic growth can be achieved while reducing carbon emissions through green ODA. The analysis of 20 years of data from approximately 100 countries includes about 2,000 data points. While there are exceptions, this trend suggests that climate-related development cooperation, particularly ODA, can play a crucial role. There are more specific examples, which I will discuss in more detail if time permits. Many of you may be interested in international organizations. Earlier,

The Role of Cities and Corporations in Climate Change Response

I mentioned the international organization internship dispatch program before. Since international organizations are closely linked to the SDGs, I haven't seen many internships dispatched to other fields within international organizations. Dispatches in the environmental and climate change fields are rare because this area is applicable everywhere. One of my students, interested in human rights, interned at the UN Human Rights Council (UNCHR) in Geneva, and the project she worked on was also related to climate change and human rights. Thus, while it is a global issue, it manifests differently in each region, requiring diverse solutions. International organizations are also keenly interested in these issues. Furthermore, the dimension of cities is also important. I first encountered this topic during my doctoral studies. During my doctoral studies, I barely used the internet. I was pursuing my Ph.D. at the University of Washington, and while contemplating my dissertation topic, I was assigned research work by the UNS (United Nations Secretariat) on 'Political Climate Change.' Upon examining this, I found that while states were passive, states like California were actively taking the lead.

If I had researched California or other US states, I would have become an expert in American politics. However, I went a step further and observed not only cities like LA and Seattle but also their engagement through city networks like C4, connecting with cities such as Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Paris, and in Korea, Changwon and Seoul. Cities occupy about 2% of the world's land area, but they are home to 50% of the world's population.

If I had researched California or cities in the US, I would have become an expert in American politics. However, I looked one step further and found that not only cities like LA and Seattle but also cities like these formed a city network called C4, connecting with cities such as Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Paris, and in Korea, Changwon and Seoul. Cities occupy about 2% of the world's land area, but the population living in them accounts for about 50% of the world's population.

And the energy consumed by these 50% of people accounts for about 70% of the total. Therefore, they emit a correspondingly large amount of greenhouse gases. Cities are the central hubs of greenhouse gas emissions and where people and infrastructure are concentrated. When a typhoon passes through an uninhabited area, it just passes by. Perhaps a few trees are uprooted or grass is flattened. But what happens when it hits a city? As I mentioned earlier with Pohang Steel Mill, when it hits an industrial city in particular, immense damage occurs. It's the same area, but the infrastructure and people are densely concentrated.

Therefore, cities are very important actors in climate change. However, these cities not only operate within a country but also form international relations, sometimes across national borders. I found the term 'international relations' to be somewhat contradictory. This is because 'international' is a compound word of 'inter' (between) and 'national' (nation). But are cities 'national'? No. Within a 'national' context, some do this and some do not. So, language ultimately governs our thoughts, so

I coined a term. When we talk about 'transnational,' people like those involved in Transnational Relations of Government, such as Joseph Nye, argued that 'while nations are important, international organizations and multinational corporations have emerged as important actors in international relations, so we should now study 'transnational' relations rather than 'international'.' Thus, the term 'transnational' is used. However, this still retains 'national' as the suffix, changing only the prefix from 'inter' to 'trans.' I thought, 'That's not right,' and changed the suffix from 'national' to 'local.' And I am someone who studies 'Translocal Relations.'

Corporate Sustainability and ESG Management

So, the subtitle is 'Translocal Relations of Government.' The topic is 'Global Climate Change.' Another aspect is the role of corporations and the concept of corporate sustainability and ESG, which I mentioned earlier. When we look at corporations as a whole, the top 10 companies, or those emitting over 1 million tons, account for nearly 50% of the total greenhouse gas emissions. However, it's not that corporations want to emit these gases.

You may or may not know how steel is made. Simply put, steel is made from iron ore. Iron ore is a stone containing iron. Can it be used directly? No. So, how do we turn it into the iron we use? We need to make it into iron that we can use. To do this, essentially, you boil the iron ore. Very hot. That is what a blast furnace does. But is boiling enough?

No. While boiling it at very high temperatures, you add something called coke. Coke is essentially a lump of carbon. Then, through a reduction process, the coke removes all impurities. This results in pure iron. That is what we use. The coke reduction process is the process of making iron. Therefore, a lot of coke, a lot of carbon, and intense heat are required, and while coal is used for this, coke is involved in the process itself.

When I work with companies like POSCO, what do we have to do then? We have to pay significant tariffs because we emit a lot of carbon. So, what do we do now? One technical solution is hydrogen. Hydrogen reduction means using hydrogen (H) instead of carbon (C). When carbon and oxygen combine, they form carbon dioxide. Burning carbon produces carbon dioxide. It oxidizes... It would have been more impressive to use mathematical notation. There's no blackboard. Anyway... it's not necessary.

Just kidding. But what do we add? We add hydrogen. Then, although the efficiency decreases, adding hydrogen causes it to combine with oxygen in the iron ore, producing water. Therefore, carbon dioxide is not generated. That is the basic principle of hydrogen reduction steelmaking. However, it is difficult. This is because water is produced, which lowers the temperature. Also, transporting and storing hydrogen is as difficult as handling coke, and coke is the most effective and efficient method. The problem is that it generates a lot of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

Climate Change Adaptation and Innovation Diffusion

Even with capture. Anyway, there are various problems with the process. Therefore, South Korea, where manufacturing is very important, faces numerous difficulties. Nevertheless, one of the reasons I study corporate ESG and climate change is not to say 'This is a crisis, you did wrong,' but to continuously research how to create market value from it. Not only do I research it, but I also try to respond to it. Since my story came up, let me share. Yesterday, I returned from Osaka Expo after signing an MOU with Osaka University regarding climate change adaptation and innovation. You probably can't think of anything specific. First, you might not even know what climate change adaptation is, and you might not immediately recognize what constitutes innovation. However, what do you think is one of the innovations that people can easily understand? Some of you drive, and some don't, but would you prefer the red line or the green line? Do you know that? The navigation system tells you to take the red line. If you don't drive, you might not know, but you've probably seen it. It's a very innovative thing. It has received numerous awards. You might think it has everything, but that's not the case. In South Korea, someone from the Road Traffic Authority developed it. But why is that innovative? People often miss it because it's complicated. Nowadays, navigation systems sometimes cause you to miss your turn and have to go back several kilometers, or you might panic and get into an accident. However, follow the green line. Then you can follow the green line. You can go to the pink line and follow the pink line. Innovation is not just about cutting-edge technology, although that is also innovation. I believe innovation is something that did not exist before but emerges and makes our lives more comfortable, prosperous, and better. It doesn't have to be overly fancy. Of course, there are those too. But we don't think of innovation as something distant or unrelated to us. One such area is innovation related to climate change adaptation. What could that be?

Recycling is similar but not exactly climate change adaptation. Climate change adaptation means it's already extremely hot, and heatwaves continue. We must adapt by changing our systems accordingly. Recycling, as mentioned, can be considered an innovation related to resource recycling and the circular economy. It is not climate change adaptation itself. You might have used it several times today. Air conditioners. Air conditioners are also very important.

Yes. It's hard to live without air conditioning these days, isn't it? Shade structures at crosswalks. You might cross without thinking, but when you step into the shade, the temperature drops by about 3 to 5 degrees Celsius, especially when the sun is intense. You might think these are everywhere, but they are not. There are many countries hotter than South Korea. I went to the Philippines for a field study, and it was 37 degrees Celsius in March or April. I thought I was going to die. They also say it's too hot. They have had to cancel school more often than before due to the heat. Why did I go to the Philippines? To export shade structures. I'm not making them, but to export shade structures. In South Korea, the market is saturated. These are installed through B2G (Business-to-Government) transactions. However, most have already been installed. Large shade structures have been installed in places with high foot traffic. This began to be developed in Seocho-gu in 2015. It must have been very good. But they created that system. Not just the shade structure itself, but because the shade structure needs to be installed on the road, it cannot be done arbitrarily. Because

Waste separation is similar, but it cannot be strictly defined as climate change adaptation. What is climate change adaptation? It's extremely hot these days, with continuous heatwaves. We must adapt by changing our systems. What is discussed now, waste separation, can be called an innovation related to resource recycling and the circular economy. It is not climate change adaptation itself. You might have used it several times today. Air conditioning. Air conditioning is also very important.

Yes. It would be difficult to live without air conditioning these days. Shade structures at crosswalks. You might cross without much thought, but entering a shade structure can lower the temperature by about 3 to 5 degrees Celsius, especially when the sun is intense. You might think these are widespread, but they are not. There are many countries hotter than Korea. I went to the Philippines for a field study, and it was 37 degrees Celsius in March or April. I thought I would die.

If it were done arbitrarily, accidents could occur. Therefore, the system, regulations, and ordinances, as well as the shade structures themselves, have evolved significantly from simple tents. In the Philippines, we are trying to sell not just the shade structures but the shade structures themselves. However, I am not the owner of the shade structures, nor am I the CEO of the company; what interests me is innovation diffusion, that is, how innovation spreads. Why does it spread in some places and not in others? Because I am an academic. And when conducting experimental research, we install shade structures in area A.

Under similar conditions, we measure the temperature difference before and after installation and the difference in people's satisfaction. Then, we install shade structures in area A. We measure before installation. We install them. Then, we measure again after installation. This allows us to understand how people's perceptions and the surrounding temperatures change after installation. Then, we install them in area A, and in area B, which is the control group, we do not install them at all. We then compare not only the temperature during the same period but also people's perceptions in the absence of installation. This is something we do a lot of experimental research on in our department. The living lab I run is also experimental research. What does this achieve?

The effect of installing shade structures becomes apparent. Then, what does that mean? People like it. It costs a certain amount of money. The temperature drops like this. We observe this with evidence-based data. I believe this is what is meant by creating market value. There are many markets because it is hot everywhere now. Therefore, even from an ODA (Official Development Assistance) perspective, after doing various things, in Osaka, Japan, they were conducting research for about 40 billion won, with a scale of about 11 billion won. For 10 years.

So, after discussing various things, I subtly mentioned, 'I am planning to do something like this.' It wasn't even a minute. One minute. It's hot. It was really hot, around 36-37 degrees Celsius. The sun was also stronger. Perhaps because the air was clean. Anyway, so after showing this, they said, 'Let's do this.' So, innovation diffusion, how did I research this? I mentioned I study cities. There are shared bicycles that first appeared. Our 'Nubi-ja' is a shared bicycle. The first time I saw it in C4 was when Paris started 'Vélib'.'

This was the first introduction of the concept of shared bicycles. Before that, a bicycle was mine; I rode my own. There was no concept of riding a shared bicycle. There was no concept, and no practice either. So, Paris created it. Vélib'. Then, when they saw it in places like C4, they thought, 'Oh, this is good,' and they learned from it. They didn't sell it; they implemented it in Changwon. Changwon has 'Nubi-ja.'

It exists even earlier than in Seoul. This is because Changwon is a planned city and is flat, allowing it to adopt such systems. However, there were problems with Paris's Vélib'. What do you think the problem was? >> Exactly. People were new to this, and since there were bicycles everywhere, they were stolen. And since it was public property, not theirs, they used them roughly and broke them. These problems also need to be solved, don't they? How would you solve them? If it were you?

Monitoring costs are significant. What are the methods to prevent theft or damage? Public bicycle systems are one approach. Collecting a deposit or using visually striking fluorescent colors for design differentiation are also methods. Attaching GPS was also considered.

GPS is a location tracking function. In case of theft, it can track the thief's location, and in case of damage, the renter can be held responsible. Sensors were attached to solve the problem. The public bicycle system, which started in Paris, gained significant attention in Changwon. Not Seoul or Busan, but the city of Changwon became famous for this system, and many people came to learn from it. I came to research this process of innovation diffusion. Now, most major cities have public bicycle systems.

This is innovation diffusion. The initial introduction and operation of the public bicycle system itself was an innovation. Subsequently, through various attempts during the continuous process of problem occurrence and resolution, the result of attaching GPS was reached. With the attachment of GPS, theft and damage decreased, and operating costs were reduced. That is why people came to learn from Changwon.

This is precisely the diffusion of innovation. The initial introduction and operation of the public bicycle system was itself an innovation. Subsequently, through continuous problem-solving and various attempts, the outcome of attaching GPS was reached. After attaching GPS, theft and damage decreased, and operational costs were reduced. This is why they came to learn from Changwon.

Innovation sometimes arises from solving grand problems, but it also sometimes begins with ideas to create better conditions for people and the planet. The shade structure installation project in Osaka is scheduled to be fully implemented next year and will present a good opportunity for small and medium-sized enterprises. For SMEs like tent manufacturing companies, developing solutions for environmental issues, especially those related to heatwaves, can also create a positive image for politicians.

Major Emitters and Policy Research

Shade structures demonstrate clear effectiveness. Recently, new forms of facilities like smart shelters have emerged. We are filing patents for these technologies. I am continuously working on conceptualizing ideas and filing and registering patents. In terms of greenhouse gas emissions, POSCO records the highest emissions, and the six power generation companies also show significant emissions.

Ssangyong and CNC are cement companies, and S-Oil is a petrochemical and oil company. The rest are power generation companies. I believe changes in these companies are necessary. One of the research agendas in our lab is to analyze the interaction between corporations and policies, not just corporate management. We analyze ESG reports to understand the impact of specific policies on corporations. Currently, we are conducting research analyzing approximately 40,000 news articles, utilizing large language models (LLMs) for this purpose.

Imagining a Carbon Neutral Future and Research Methodologies

This research has not yet been published, but it can show the changes in ESG discourse. It appears that people from various backgrounds, not just those studying policy, are participating. I believe it is important for everyone to contemplate these climate issues based on their respective fields. The 'Living Lab' project I am conducting is a process of co-creating and verifying solutions. We are currently conducting research to develop and verify the effectiveness of heatwave-related solutions with vulnerable populations. This is a bottom-up approach, seeking harmonious solutions rather than a top-down one. Additionally, we are conducting research on 'the future of carbon neutrality.'

This research captures people's expectations for a 'carbon-neutral future by 2050.' Safety, cities, economy, and infrastructure were mentioned as important aspects. The research is titled 'Imagining Carbon Neutral Futures with Community Participation.' Those interested in future studies or carbon-neutral futures may find this research useful.

Although it may seem somewhat scattered due to covering a lot of content in a short time, the structure is intentional. Rather than delving deeply into individual papers, for undergraduate students or those unfamiliar with this field, I aimed to approach climate change from political-economic, particularly international political-economic, security, development cooperation, and in relation to various actors such as cities and corporations. I believe this approach will enable us to explore diverse solutions and concrete, practical solutions.

Yes. That is all for the lecture. Do you have any questions?

Lee Tae-dong, Professor of Political Science and International Relations at Yonsei University.