Ito, Who Cut His Topknot, and Glover, Who Became a Samurai: Glover Garden

Jeong Heon-wook · Chung-Ang University

Introduction

Subject

Glover Garden (グラバー園) refers to the residence of the Scottish merchant Thomas Blake Glover during his stay in Nagasaki, Japan. Known as Ipponmatsu (一本松) due to its surrounding pine trees, it was not merely a dwelling but also a place for entertaining his business partners and other merchants, and a venue where anti-shogunate politicians plotted against the Tokugawa Shogunate (幕府). Glover himself spared no support for anti-shogunate forces, even calling himself the 'greatest traitor' to the Edo (江戸) Shogunate. His contributions ranged from providing weapons and ships that aided the success of the Meiji Restoration (明治維新) and the Satsuma-Choshu Alliance (薩長同盟), to facilitating the overseas study of samurai from the Choshu domain (長州藩), represented by the Choshu Five (長州五傑), whom he helped embark on a journey to Britain to learn naval technology, viewing them as 'living machines.' This report will focus on the relationship between Glover and Ito Hirobumi (伊藤博文), one of the Choshu Five. However, to avoid the leap of discussing national relations based solely on the interactions of two individuals, we will delve into their inner thoughts and focus on the transformation of their values.

Core Question

The reason for specifically choosing Ito among the Choshu Five is the particularly close relationship between Ito and Glover. Their relationship, formed deeply around the time of Ito's study abroad, continued even after Ito's return. However, this report will focus on their relationship during the period before and after the Choshu Five's study abroad in Britain.

In 1908, Glover was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun, Second Class, the highest decoration for foreigners, in recognition of his significant contributions to Japan's industrial modernization.

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Although he received this honor somewhat late considering his active period during the late Edo and Meiji Restoration (幕末維新) eras, it attests to the immense and timeless contributions Glover made to Japan's shipbuilding and mining industries.

Meanwhile, Ito, who served as Prime Minister, was actually a commoner and a proponent of the expulsion of foreigners, but he abandoned this theory and switched to the open-door policy upon studying in Britain. Even more significantly, Glover, who voluntarily assisted them, was not Japanese but from Scotland and, moreover, not a bureaucrat but merely a merchant. These facts carry new implications. Therefore, this report aims to answer the questions about the reasons for their (especially the foreigner Glover's) thinking and actions to such an extent, and their significance, by focusing on the relationship between them and structuring the report around finding answers to these questions. The core questions are: What caused Glover's change of mind to decide to support the anti-shogunate forces, and what caused Ito's change of mind to abandon the expulsionist theory?

Ito is perceived in Korea and Japan as having 'two faces: a villain and a hero.' However, during the writing of this report, the author's personal emotions as a Korean will be excluded as much as possible. This report aims to focus solely on the circumstances of Glover and Ito at the time, presenting it as a 'dramatic' narrative. Through this, the report seeks to understand their inner thoughts by immersing the reader in the events of that period from the perspective of these two individuals.

Glover and the Escape of the Choshu Five

In the autumn of 1863, a fast sailing ship docked at the port of London, England. Shortly after 8 a.m. on November 4th, among the many passengers disembarking from the 300-ton sailing vessel Pegasus were two young Japanese men: Inoue Kaoru (井上馨), aged 28, and Ito Hirobumi, aged 22. The ship, which had departed from Shanghai (上海), had taken them on a grueling four-month journey as deckhands, crossing the Cape of Good Hope to reach their destination. Exhausted physically and mentally from their first sea voyage, they had companions to meet. Their colleagues, who had arrived earlier on a different ship and were waiting for them, were other young men named Yamao Yōzō (山尾庸三), Inoue Masaru (井上勝), and Endo Kinsuke (遠藤謹助). Yes, these five were the samurai who would become known as the Choshu Five. Why did they leave Japan and come to London? Let us turn back to the situation in Japan at the time they departed.

Foreign Merchants in Japan

At the end of the Edo period, Japan, under the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate (徳川将軍), faced difficulties in both politics and the economy. Since the forced opening of the country in 1853 by Commodore Perry's fleet of black ships, Japan had signed treaties of friendship and commerce with several Western powers. In 1858, following the signing of trade agreements with five Western countries, Japan abandoned its policy of seclusion, which had been maintained for about 200 years, and opened its long-closed doors to the international community. In other words, Japan reluctantly agreed to free trade treaties under the pressure of Western powers like Britain, the United States, France, and Russia, which were backed by formidable military strength. Consequently, foreign settlements sprang up rapidly in port cities such as Yokohama (横浜) and Nagasaki, and numerous foreign merchants flocked to Japan in pursuit of commercial opportunities.

Glover, the Foreign Merchant

Glover was one of them. Born and raised in the port city of Aberdeen, Scotland, as the son of a coast guard, Glover was heavily influenced by his brothers, who were involved in shipbuilding and trade, leading him to pursue a career as a merchant operating overseas. Before going to Japan, he had been engaged in trade in China. Interest in Japan was growing in the Shanghai region where he was located. Glover also began to take an interest in Japan, even hiring a Japanese-speaking guide and attending lectures on Japan to study information and laws related to the country. One day, Glover met his former mentor, Kenneth Ross Mackenzie. Mackenzie proposed a business partnership, and Glover agreed to merge their businesses and move to Japan, planning to engage in smuggling, primarily dealing in tea and opium. They arrived in Nagasaki on September 19, 1859.

Upon arriving in Japan, Glover began working as Mackenzie's partner, registered as an employee of the British Consulate in Nagasaki. However, due to the political conflicts within Japan at the time, foreign merchants' trading activities were not smooth. After the establishment of the Chamber of Commerce in Nagasaki in June 1861, Glover was elected to a key position. As his situation in Japan gradually improved, Mackenzie became jealous of Glover's success and eventually returned to China. This presented a great opportunity for Glover. In the Japanese market, Glover became independent and established his own company for the first time. By 1864, his trading company had expanded to 20 branches.

In the early stages, Glover was passionate about tea manufacturing. His British tea business was a great success, and his new company began collaborating with Jardine Matheson & Co. First, samples of tea manufactured by Glover were sent to Jardine Matheson in Shanghai, and if a manufacturing patent was granted there, the collaboration proceeded in two stages: patent acquisition and tea manufacturing in Japan. Although the tea manufacturing business did not yield substantial profits, it greatly helped him gain insight and experience in trade.

Glover's Arms Dealing

Meanwhile, one particularly noteworthy aspect of Glover's trading activities was his relationship with the political factions within Japan at the time. He provided financial and technological assistance and loans not only to the shogunate forces but also to local clans. His relationships with Japanese political factions became particularly close between 1864 and 1867, and he supplied warships, vast quantities of guns, and precious metals like silver, which were necessary for the conflicts between the shogunate and the clans. Around September 1864, Glover made his first ship sale in Japan, and the rifles imported through Glover's firm into Nagasaki amounted to approximately 171,934 units.

Between 1860 and 1867, arms dealing was Glover's most profitable business. Eventually, at the age of 25, he became a key broker for the Satsuma domain. Naturally, he assumed the role of the primary arms broker for the Satsuma-Choshu alliance, known as the Satcho Alliance (薩長同盟). At this time, Glover's activities contributed to his historical recognition in Japan as a pioneer in the import of rifles, cannons, and explosives.

The Sonno Joi Movement

In this situation, some Japanese samurai, who believed that domestic political and economic turmoil were caused by foreigners, launched the 'expel the barbarians' (Jōi) movement, by driving out or killing foreigners.

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Moreover, because the Emperor at the time disliked foreigners, the movement spread instantaneously and evolved into the 'Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians' (Sonnō Jōi) movement.

Meanwhile, from the 1860s, the shogunate began to seriously worry about the increasing number of incidents caused by anti-foreign samurai across the country. In June 1861, the British legation in Edo was attacked by samurai from the Mito domain (水戸藩) at Tozenji Temple (東漸寺). In September 1862, a British merchant on horseback was attacked by Satsuma domain samurai in Namamugi (生麦), resulting in one death and two serious injuries (commonly known as the 'Namamugi Incident'). In January 1863, Choshu domain samurai attacked and set fire to the British legation under construction in Shinagawa (品川), Edo. It was natural for foreigners to feel fear in such circumstances. In response, the Emperor ordered the shogunate to return to a policy of seclusion and expel all foreigners. Consequently, Shogun Tokugawa Iemochi (徳川家茂) visited Kyoto to pay homage to the Emperor. On June 25, 1863, following a meeting between the Emperor and the Shogun, a policy was decided to expel foreigners within two months, which was enthusiastically welcomed by the Sonno Joi samurai.

Amidst the Threat of War

The late spring and summer of 1863 in Nagasaki were long and hot. It was a particularly dangerous and unstable period for the British community, and Glover's letters to Madison of Jardine Matheson during this period documented these events.

The background was the imminent British retaliation against the Satsuma domain for the murder of Charles Richardson the previous September. Early the following year, Britain demanded an indemnity of 100,000 pounds from the shogunate and demanded that the Satsuma domain execute the samurai responsible and pay 25,000 pounds in compensation for his crime. Commodore Cooper of the British Navy waited in China with nine warships, ready to attack at any time if their demands were not met. They were well aware that the Shogun could not exert influence over the Satsuma domain, especially its stronghold Kagoshima (鹿児島).

The Joi faction urged the Shogun not to comply with Britain's demands. Eventually, an edict was issued by the Shogun in Edo, which was interpreted by moderates as the beginning of new negotiations regarding port agreements with the West. However, the radical faction of the Choshu domain interpreted it as an approval to attack and drive out all barbarians residing in Japan, and they promptly put this into action.

On April 6, 1863, while Sir Alcock was away, his acting representative, Edwin St John Neale, delivered an ultimatum to the Shogun. If Japan did not comply with Britain's demands within 20 days, it would face the consequences. Furthermore, with the British naval fleet stationed and on standby in Nagasaki, much closer to the Satsuma domain than Edo or Yokohama, to protect its citizens in case of emergency, military tension in the area inevitably escalated.

A report from Morrison to the British Legation in Japan on April 14th provides insight into the atmosphere at the time. While urging his countrymen to remain calm, he cautioned them to be aware of potential clashes in Nagasaki and near Satsuma. He further recorded:

“The Lord of Satsuma has dispatched agents to the port to closely investigate the British government's anticipated response,

and some of his high-ranking officials are also

in continuous communication with foreigners—particularly with Glover of Glover & Co.

I am informed.

This Mr. Glover has informed me that the Commander-in-Chief of the Satsuma Lord has gone to Nagasaki to gather information,

and that another high-ranking official has requested him to act as an intermediary and facilitate the flow of funds in the desired amount.

He also informed me that another high-ranking official has requested him to act as an intermediary and facilitate the flow of funds in the desired amount.

He also informed me that another high-ranking official has requested him to act as an intermediary and facilitate the flow of funds in the desired amount.

Unsettled Situation in Nagasaki

At that time, Glover was the only Englishman who could directly approach Satsuma. Once, when he pressed the Satsuma murderers regarding the punishment for the Namamugi Incident, he was told, 'It is useless to discuss.' On April 29, he wrote the following to Madison of Jardine Matheson:

“… The inhabitants have been ordered to hold themselves in readiness to leave. …

A considerable body of Japanese troops are … moving to the forts at the mouth of the bay.”

The entry for May 6th is as follows:

“… I am informed by a Satsuma correspondent that Satsuma is the most indignant and refractory of the daimios, and that no alternative seems left but hostilities.

and that no alternative seems left but hostilities.

and that no alternative seems left but hostilities.

Madison of Jardine Matheson replied, urging Glover to do his best to protect their assets in Nagasaki. In response, Glover wrote on May 16:

“War appears to be now inevitable, and the inhabitants are leaving the port with their valuables. … The Prince has stated that distinction will be made according to nationality, but Americans, Dutch, and other foreigners do not place much reliance on his word. … Further particulars are contained in the accompanying

The Prince has stated that distinction will be made according to nationality, but Americans, Dutch, and other foreigners do not place much reliance on his word.

The Prince has stated that distinction will be made according to nationality, but Americans, Dutch, and other foreigners do not place much reliance on his word.

The Prince has stated that distinction will be made according to nationality, but Americans, Dutch, and other foreigners do not place much reliance on his word. … Further particulars are contained in the accompanying

North China Herald & Recorder

issue. 3. Ito, Who Cut His Topknot, and Glover, Who Became a Samurai_Glover Garden

Meanwhile, Morrison's dispatch to Edo occurred at the same time as Glover's dispatch to Shanghai, and he was almost a consular informant. He left the following record on May 10.

“The trains are laid for civil war, and the foreign question is the trigger for civil war.

Nine nights later, the settlement will be a den of thieves and villains.

“

Around mid-May, Glover, then 24 years old, convened the Chamber of Commerce as a leader of the foreign community. Meanwhile, Britain's ultimatum was extended to the end of the month at the request of the Shogunate, which was welcome news for those stranded in Nagasaki (as it provided breathing room). At the Chamber of Commerce, they discussed whether to abandon their properties and flee to the two warships in the harbor, at least until the crisis passed. In the end, they decided to stay put. They agreed to meet every evening at the most defensible residence of William Alt and keep armed watch there.

The nights spent at Alt's house must have been nerve-wracking. The armed watch was selected on a rotating basis, with shifts taken while others slept. Peering into the darkness of the quiet, humid summer night, they would have watched for sudden movements, the glint of a sword or saber revealing the presence of an assassin. They would have heard the snap of a twig above the chirping of cicadas. At dawn, they would return to their homes and businesses, trying to live as normally as possible.

According to Glover's letter to Madison of Jardine Matheson on May 26, merchants were forced to bring their books and papers to the ships anchored in the harbor and appear to be conducting business there. He continued in the letter:

“… Business has almost ceased due to political issues. … The

additional period of grace for the Japanese side expires tomorrow, so the results should be known on the 31st.

… All newspapers agree that civil war is almost inevitable.

… Hostile intentions continue to be evident on the Japanese side,

and a large number of men were engaged in transporting sandbags, sacks, and guns day and night. …

We have made a list of all our property and submitted it, and it has been officially certified by the British Consulate.”

“

”

The Eye of the Storm

Thus, June arrived in Nagasaki amidst the heat and showers, and they were still awaiting news from Edo. Just as new rumors began to circulate, news finally reached Nagasaki that the Shogun had agreed to pay compensation for the murders of the British marines and Richardson. 3. Itō with His Topknot Cut, Glover the Samurai_Glover Garden The news that the Satsuma issue remained—they had still not subdued the murderers or paid compensation—the possibility of war between Britain and Japan faded.

In mid-June, agents from Satsuma and Chōshū returned to Nagasaki, and business began to show signs of recovery. Glover and his brother, among others, no longer had to spend every night at Alt's house. Glover wrote to Shanghai on June 17.

“… The local confusion has considerably subsided, and they are returning to their homes day by day.

The shops in town have reopened,

and merchants are resuming trade with foreigners.”

However, this peaceful interlude was merely the calm eye of the storm.

The Formation of the Chōshū Five

Meanwhile, Inoue Kaoru and Itō Hirobumi from Chōshū were key supporters of the Sonjō-jōi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) movement. Along with them, Yamao Yōzō and Hisasaka Genzei had readily participated in the attack on the British Consulate organized by Takasugi Shinsaku. However, a month later, after meeting Sakuma Shōzan, a military strategist, in Kyoto, Inoue Kaoru was greatly impressed by his arguments for strengthening naval power and sending people abroad to study. He eventually decided to go abroad himself to study Western naval science, and Yamao joined him. They became convinced that studying abroad in the West was the first step toward achieving true expulsion of foreigners.

They argued that strengthening and modernizing the military and economic power of the Chōshū domain would lead to the modernization of Japan as a whole, and by strengthening Japan's coastal defenses,

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it would prevent the potential colonization of the country. Impressed by their arguments, senior officials of the domain conveyed their position to the lord, Mōri Takachika, and his successor, Mōri Sadahiro. On June 4, 1863, Inoue Kaoru and Yamao received approval to study abroad, and a third member, 20-year-old Inoue Masaru, was added. Inoue Kaoru was familiar with Western studies, while Yamao and Inoue Masaru had studied navigation.

The three immediately departed for Yokohama and began negotiations on transportation and costs with Samuel Gower, the Yokohama branch manager of Jardine Matheson, whom they had met before. It was not easy to persuade Gower, but he eventually agreed to help them. It was the end of June. At this stage, two more individuals joined their group: Itō Hirobumi and Endō Kinsuke, 27 years old. All of them aspired to go abroad. Thus, five brave young men set their sights on Britain to learn naval science.

Glover Cooperates with the Chōshū Five

Glover's cooperation is indispensable in this process. Meanwhile, in the crisis of May, anti-Shogunate forces from Chōshū approached Glover in Nagasaki. They requested his help in helping young samurai escape to the West. Although it was a dangerous and reckless request at the time, Glover agreed without hesitation. He immediately sought help from Madison through Jardine Matheson's Yokohama branch, which naturally involved the Shanghai and London branches of Jardine Matheson. The escape operation of the Chōshū Five began. Wei-gal, his company employee in Yokohama, was also involved in this plot, as was his family in Aberdeen (though the details are unknown). Thus, the clear violation of the laws strictly stipulated by the Shogunate was not discussed in the company correspondence that Glover had exchanged up to that point.

Glover believed it was important during this period for the most intelligent young Japanese to see firsthand the technologies and other advancements. He also believed that upon their return from abroad, they would be able to effect change more effectively than any foreigner, becoming the strongest advocates for reform among the anti-Shogunate forces, and that this was the best way forward. Glover's involvement in the overseas dispatch of the Chōshū Five was likely the first, and perhaps the most important, practical manifestation of this belief. This was especially true given that he would have been more aware than any foreigner in Japan that this was a very dangerous undertaking.

Glover and Itō

At this point, his lifelong connection with Itō Hirobumi, one of the five, likely played a decisive role in the unfolding of events. Their relationship began in 1863 when Glover met Itō, who was one of the Chōshū domain samurai under the responsibility of the Edo envoy, and they maintained a close relationship. The reason it was important for Glover to maintain relations with the Chōshū faction, including Itō, was also because a war between the Chōshū and Shogunate factions was anticipated. This also reveals Glover's calculating side, aiming to profit by selling modern weapons in the process.

Itō was born in mid-October 1841 in Kumage, present-day Yamaguchi Prefecture (then part of the Chōshū domain), as the son of a tenant farmer. His father was the adopted son of a low-ranking samurai, and the young Itō, although not a samurai himself at the time, was raised with a traditional education. In his youth, he actively participated in the Sonjō-jōi terrorist movement led by Yoshida Shōin (a prophet and teacher who opposed the Shogunate and was later executed for organizing an assassination group). Itō was then one of the young Chōshū samurai led by Takasugi Shinsaku, who sought to save the country from the West and the Shogunate—including Kido Takayoshi, Yamao Yōzō, and Inoue Kaoru. All of them were associated with Thomas Glover. These intelligent young men at the time began to recognize the overwhelming power of Western military forces thanks to Glover. The most likely reason Itō was selected as one of the Chōshū Five—despite subsequent justifiable criticisms of his debauchery, drinking, and blind ambition—was his already evident strong character, coupled with the fact that he had studied English and was recognized for his linguistic abilities in 1863.

In 1863, both Itō and Inoue Kaoru were in their mid-twenties, like Glover, and as they planned this great escape, all three were uncertain and anxious about the progress of the plan. Itō, in particular, would have been even more so, given his participation in the attack on the British Legation two years earlier. However, regardless of past events, they were now confident that they could learn much from foreigners. They had realized that blind hatred was of no help.

Although the escape of the Chōshū Five at that time was just one of many events that captured Glover's attention, the departure of these five young men to the West would have a profound impact on Japan's future. Declaring Themselves 'Human Weapons'

By then, Jardine Matheson had become the largest foreign trading company in Asia. They opened their Yokohama branch with the opening of the port of Yokohama in 1859 and were becoming the leading trading company in Japan. The Japanese called their branch 'Yokohama No. 1'. It is ironic that this British trading company decided to support the illegal passage of Chōshū samurai who intended to 'expel the barbarians.' The day after Jardine Matheson decided to help them, on June 25, Chōshū implemented the Emperor's anti-foreign policy and attacked an American merchant ship in the Shimonoseki Strait.

Under these circumstances, leaving the country was by no means easy, and the five, including Inoue Kaoru, were prepared to die at any moment if necessary. The day before their departure, June 26, they left a letter for the domain staff.

“I am fully aware of the gravity of my actions.

I have made this decision knowing that my illegal act deserves the death penalty.

If I fail to carry out my original intentions,

I have no intention of returning alive. …

I humbly ask for your understanding and forgiveness. Please consider me merely

a 'human weapon' you have purchased.” 3. Itō with His Topknot Cut, Glover the Samurai_Glover Garden

They pleaded for understanding, emphasizing that studying in Britain was a dangerous decision that risked their lives, and apologized for borrowing a large sum of money for their studies. By using the term 'human weapon,' they hoped to be seen as individuals equipped with Western technology. For the Chōshū Five, studying abroad was a journey on the brink of life and death to learn the skills necessary to overcome foreign powers. In other words, it was a journey to a foreign country to expel foreigners.

The Chōshū Five's Study Abroad in Britain and Return

The Secret Departure of the Chōshū Five

Upon arriving at 'Yokohama No. 1' around 9 p.m. that evening, the Chōshū Five performed the ceremony of cutting off their topknots and changed into Western suits prepared by Gower, which was a terrible humiliation for them. At that time, going abroad was equivalent to suppressing their pride. As they were about to depart, Itō left the following poem to express his state of mind:

“When I leave,

I am full of shame as a man,

But I know I must do this, for the Emperor and my country!”

They had to hide in the garden of Glover's agent in Yokohama, fearing detection by the Shogunate police. With their topknots cut and their hair styled in the Western fashion, it was clear that if they were discovered, they would be put to death without any possibility of defense. Later, Itō calmly recalled the time and wrote the following:

“I was one of the first Japanese to visit a foreign country, and in 1863,

there was no way to go abroad except by smuggling myself out to Shanghai.

At that time, Japan had only just begun to interact with foreign countries,

and Japanese were not yet permitted to leave the country.

”

However, this was far from the calm atmosphere of a written recollection; in reality, it was a miserable escape.

After midnight, Gower led them out the back door to a small tender heading for Jardine Matheson's Cheswick steamship. They borrowed British sailor uniforms and hoped that their incoherent chatter in foreign languages would sound like gibberish to the coast guards as they passed them. After boarding, they had to hide in the coal bunker, waiting for departure, to avoid being discovered by the crew. 3. Itō with His Topknot Cut, Glover the Samurai_Glover Garden

Despite the farewell party where they had prepared for death before boarding, their fear and anxiety were immeasurable as the anchor was raised and the ship slowly moved towards the open sea. They knew all too well that if they were caught before the ship reached the open sea, they would be executed without recourse.

At the very least, Ito found some solace in the fact that he had been granted samurai status by Choshu before he hastily departed Japan. Even in his old age, he did not forget the help of the British, especially Glover, who helped him smuggle himself out of Japan at that crucial time.

Finally, the ship departed before dawn on June 27. It was the third day after Choshu had begun its attacks on foreign vessels.

Awakened to Western Civilization in Shanghai

Five days later, they arrived in Shanghai and were greatly shocked by the dazzling spectacle of the rapidly developing modern commercial center. Seeing the foreign naval power stationed in Shanghai, they keenly felt Japan's vulnerability. It did not take them long to realize that expelling foreigners was a mistake that could ruin their country and that strengthening their naval defenses was essential for Japan. It must have been a remarkable experience for them to directly encounter the artifacts of Western civilization in Shanghai. The visit to Shanghai brought a crisis to their confidence. Kaoru Inoue gazed with awe at the massive Western steamships and warships moving in the Chinese port. He judged it impossible to defend Japan from such powerful forces and therefore concluded that their expulsion of foreigners was impossible in the first place. Angered by this, Ito immediately questioned him, "How can you give up so easily just by looking at a few ships?" However, it was clear that Ito himself was also deeply influenced by what he had seen.

Upon arriving in the city, they met with William Keswick at the Jardine Matheson Shanghai branch, armed with a letter of introduction from Gore. When Keswick asked them about the purpose of their trip, Masaru Inoue, whose English was poor at the time, mistakenly replied that he was going to study "navigation" when he meant to say "navy." Keswick, understanding that they were going to study navigation in Britain, divided them into two groups and put them on two different ships bound for London, asking each captain to train them during the voyage. Kaoru Inoue and Ito boarded the clipper ship Pegasus, while the other three boarded the 500-ton clipper ship White Adder. Both ships were large, fast sailing vessels that transported tea from China to Britain.

Encountering British Civilization After Many Trials

Ito and Kaoru Inoue suffered terribly during the long voyage to Europe on the Pegasus. Treated as apprentice sailors and given inedible food, they suffered from seasickness and diarrhea. At one point, Inoue Kaoru had to tie Ito to the side of the ship to prevent the severely weakened Ito from falling overboard. It took them four months after leaving Shanghai to reach London. During the latter half of the voyage, conditions became less harsh in every respect, and the two even tried to communicate with the Pegasus's crew in English, consulting their pocket dictionaries.

The long journey from Shanghai had been a very difficult ordeal for Kaoru Inoue and Ito, so they were greatly relieved and delighted when the Pegasus arrived safely in London on November 4. What they encountered was British civilization in full swing, and Inoue was speechless with shock. He later recalled that he had no idea what to do for a while. He wrote in his autobiography:

"Buildings of three to five stories lined the streets, and trains were running in all

directions. Black smoke from the factories rose into the sky, and people were coming and going everywhere. When I first saw such prosperous scenes, I was bewildered, and the thought of expelling foreigners completely vanished from my mind in an instant."

directions. Black smoke from the factories rose into the sky, and people were coming and going everywhere. When I first saw such prosperous scenes, I was bewildered, and the thought of expelling foreigners completely vanished from my mind in an instant."

directions. Black smoke from the factories rose into the sky, and people were coming and going everywhere. When I first saw such prosperous scenes, I was bewildered, and the thought of expelling foreigners completely vanished from my mind in an instant."

directions. Black smoke from the factories rose into the sky, and people were coming and going everywhere. When I first saw such prosperous scenes, I was bewildered, and the thought of expelling foreigners completely vanished from my mind in an instant."

Steam locomotives chugged through tall brick buildings, black smoke billowed from the chimneys of state-of-the-art factories, and people bustled through the city streets. Witnessing the scene unfold before them, Inoue Kaoru and Ito were keenly aware of how unrealistic the idea of 'expelling the barbarians' was.

After the inevitable initial confusion, they were placed under the care and patronage of the Jardine Matheson firm in London. If Shanghai had seemed vast and wondrous to them, the port and city of London (despite its costliness, crowdedness, and communication difficulties) were like a new discovery.

They arrived by train at Fenchurch Street Station and subsequently checked into the America Square Hotel in east Minories. To their surprise, Inoue Masaru, Endo, and Yamao were already waiting for them. These three had left Shanghai a few weeks after them but had arrived in London four days earlier. At the time of their reunion, Yamao was at the barbershop, a scene the others found quite comical.

Meeting with Matheson

A few days later, Captain Boer of the Pegasus sailing ship took them to Hugh Matheson, the chief representative of Jardine Matheson in London. It appears they asked Matheson for advice and guidance on the lives of the young Japanese men in Britain. Matheson recalled his meeting with the Japanese men as follows: 3. Ito Cuts His Topknot, Glover Becomes a Samurai_Glover Garden

“Upon his arrival in London, he (Captain Boer) brought his young passengers

to my office. Their names were Ito, Shide (Inoue Kaoru),

Yamao (Yamao Yōzō), Nomura (Inoue Masaru), and Endo.

Only Nomura could speak English, albeit hesitantly.

I undertook to see them properly lodged and their education

arranged. It was a great piece of good fortune that I persuaded Dr. Williamson—Professor of Chemistry at University College,

UCL, and later President of the British Association—to receive them into his house.

After consulting with the professor, I arranged for them to be placed in classes where they could learn English and lay the foundation for a truly good education.

Dr. Williamson’s advice was invaluable in this respect. To me, they represented everything.

“How do I do my washing?” “Where can I buy shoes?”

They used their time diligently. I saw them frequently.”

“How do I do my washing?” “Where can I buy shoes?”

They used their time diligently. I saw them frequently.”

It is noteworthy that Madison expressed, “Dr. Williamson’s advice was invaluable in this regard.” Williamson likely explained to Madison how to establish a foundation for the proper education of Japanese students, based on his views on integrated science education that he had practiced through direct lectures at UCL. The fact that they were the first Japanese international students to study at UCL served as a significant source of motivation for Williamson. Williamson's lifelong pursuit was 'Unity out of difference,' and for him, the Japanese students perhaps represented a golden opportunity to practice this philosophy.

Matheson asked Sir Augustus Prevost, a governor of UCL, to recommend someone who could mentor the Japanese students. Prevost, who had long held great respect for Williamson's character, educational philosophy, and, above all, his global perspective, unhesitatingly chose Williamson.

Williamson Welcomes the Japanese Students

In 1863, Williamson, then 39 years old, was in the prime of his life. He and his wife, Emma, were busy raising their daughter Alice, born the previous year. Furthermore, 1863 was a landmark year for Williamson, not solely because he took responsibility for the Japanese students. In 1862, he had received the Royal Medal from the Royal Society, and in 1863, he was elected president of the Chemical Society of London, the most prestigious chemical society in Britain. Additionally, he was appointed head of the chemistry section of the British Association at its annual meeting in Newcastle. However, Williamson was not the type to abuse the authority granted to him.

The five young men from Japan were indeed fortunate. They had found a true mentor in Britain, a rarity in the educational world. Williamson invited them all to live at his residence on Gower Street. It must have been a difficult decision for the couple, with their infant daughter Alice and two servants, but they gladly welcomed these foreign visitors. 3. Ito Cuts His Topknot, Glover Becomes a Samurai_Glover Garden

However, it soon became apparent that accommodating all of them was difficult, and Matheson eventually arranged for Inoue Kaoru and Yamao to stay at the Cooper family's home at 103 Gower Street, near the university. Alexander Davis Cooper was a rather famous genre painter, and his father and wife were also painters. Having moved to the Cooper residence, the two likely lived in an artistic atmosphere surrounded by paintings. They must have found the house very pleasant and comfortable, thanks to the warm hospitality of the Cooper family.

Adapting to the Academic Atmosphere at UCL

It was time for the five Japanese students to begin their studies at UCL. They were enrolled in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, to which Williamson belonged, as 'non-matriculated students.' They selected courses, paid tuition fees, and attended lectures. The student records preserved in the UCL archives contain detailed records of the courses they took.

In 1863, Ito, Yamao, Inoue Masaru, and Endo took lectures in analytical chemistry, a natural choice as it was Williamson's subject. Inoue Kaoru's name is not found in the student records, likely because he did not meet the tuition payment deadline. Inoue Kaoru and Ito returned to Japan before the start of the 1864 academic year, while the remaining students continued their studies in chemistry. From 1864 onwards for two years, Yamao additionally studied civil engineering alongside chemistry, while Inoue Masaru and Endo took up geology and mineralogy in addition to chemistry. The following year, 1866, Yamao left for Glasgow and Endo for his hometown. Left alone at UCL, Inoue Masaru that year took courses in English, French, mathematics, and mathematical physics, in addition to his existing studies in analytical chemistry, geology, and mineralogy. The subjects he chose clearly indicate his faithful adherence to Williamson's ideas on liberal education. By his third year, he had already completed the foundational coursework essential for higher education.

Williamson's laboratory at University College was the center of the Japanese students' university life. The laboratory aimed to systematically teach basic science subjects while developing technical and applied skills through analytical chemistry work in the laboratory. Williamson's goal was to impart the essence of scientific research by teaching chemistry in both theoretical and practical aspects.

Ito later recalled the period as follows:

“We studied at the university during the day and at home in the early morning and evening.

We lodged at the home of our teacher, Mr. Williamson, who taught us mathematics at the university.

To be precise, the professor taught chemistry at the university during the day,

and in the early morning and evening, he gave lessons at his home. 3. Ito Cuts His Topknot, Glover Becomes a Samurai_Glover Garden

We also went to the university during the day to study, which was our daily routine.

that was our daily routine.”

They gradually adapted to the liberal academic atmosphere of UCL. They experienced innovative education through an empirical approach and embraced its fundamental principles.

In Search of the 'Essence of the West'

Between classes, they visited numerous places, from the Royal Mint to museums, art galleries, shipyards, and factories. They wanted to intuitively grasp the principles by which Western civilization operated. They had vowed to become 'human weapons' through Western knowledge. To achieve this goal, it was not enough to simply accumulate knowledge through academic study and learn a few skills; it was also necessary to discover the 'essence of the West.' However, finding it was no easy task.

Mrs. Williamson played a significant role in aiding their understanding. Harris and Brock, who wrote Williamson's biography, described it as follows:

“They were also fortunate to benefit from the kindness of Mrs. Williamson, who not only treated them like family and did her best to ensure their happiness in Britain

but also assisted in their English lessons. The students

made remarkable progress in their English and quickly acquired a thorough knowledge of British industry and commerce, knowledge that could be immediately applied to the successful development of their home country.

progress in their English and quickly acquired a thorough knowledge of British industry and commerce, knowledge that could be immediately applied to the successful development of their home country.

development of their home country.

Mrs. Williamson took care to help them become familiar with Western civilization in their daily lives.

Meanwhile, Williamson not only sent them to numerous industrial factories but also personally took them on tours. After demonstrating various experiments in the laboratory, he took them to factories to see firsthand how those experiments were applied in practice. He wanted them to first understand the principles of science and then contemplate the essence of culture based on modern science. His philosophy of 'Unity out of difference' and his belief that 'civilization flourishes when individuals and nations with diverse cultures harmonize' guided him in this direction, and the five Japanese students responded very positively to his teachings.

On January 22, 1864, they visited the Bank of England on Threadneedle Street. The Bank of England boasted the finest minting techniques in Europe at the time, and they were amazed by its high level of technology, capable of printing thousands of banknotes at once. The records of the visit by the five men from Chōshū remain to this day; to commemorate their visit, they signed their names in both Roman and Chinese characters on a one-thousand-pound note printed for the occasion. This was done only for special guests. 3. Ito Cuts His Topknot, Glover Becomes a Samurai_Glover Garden For a New Japan.

Shortly after the five men visited the Bank of England, Hugh Matheson visited them in August of the previous year with the significant news that there had been a military conflict between Britain and Satsuma in Japan. He was referring to the Anglo-Satsuma War (薩英戦争) that broke out in 1863. They might have already heard a little about the incident through the British press, which reported on the attacks on foreign ships by Chōshū and the subsequent retaliation, along with the war in Satsuma.

Recalling that day, Inoue Kaoru wrote the following:

“As articles began to appear in the newspapers arguing for retaliation against Chōshū,

we became very depressed. I discussed the situation with Itō.

I argued that no matter how much naval expertise we acquired,

it would be useless if our country was destroyed.

We were wasting our time. Two of us should return and meet with the daimyo and other officials to explain the situation in Europe

and persuade them to change course and adopt a policy of 'Revere the Emperor and Open the Country' (尊王開国).

Itō fully agreed with my argument,

and Itō and I decided to leave the remaining three in Britain and return to our homeland immediately.”

Inoue Kaoru was acutely aware of how advanced Western culture and technology were, and how far behind Japan was in that regard. The sense of crisis he felt compelled him to advocate for opening the country along with the slogan 'Enrich the country, strengthen the military' (富国強兵).

Itō, recalling his time in Britain, stated, 'Seeing how European countries prospered with their prefectural systems (府県制), I became convinced that Japan's feudal system must be abolished.'

They already considered Japan a unified nation and were developing their own ideas on how to unify a country divided into domains.

Ultimately, the five students sent a letter to Matheson stating that after careful consideration, they had decided to send Inoue Kaoru and Itō back to Japan to save the country from foreign attacks. Although some advised against returning to Japan immediately due to the dangerous situation, their firm resolve could not be swayed.

The other three also wanted to return to Japan, but Inoue Kaoru urged them not to forget their original intention of dedicating themselves to their country as 'human weapons' and persuaded them to remain in Britain. Thus, around the end of April 1864, Inoue Kaoru and Itō left London for Japan.

Concealing the True Purpose of Their Study Abroad from British Diplomats 3. Itō Cuts His Topknot, Glover Becomes a Samurai_Glover Garden Two months after they left, at the end of June, the remaining three, Inoue Masaru, Endo, and Yamao, met with Reginald Russell, a British diplomat. He had visited Japan three years earlier, in June 1861, as the First Secretary of the British Legation in Japan and had learned Japanese for two years. Russell, aware of the plan by the combined forces of Britain, the United States, France, and the Netherlands to attack the Shimonoseki forts, likely approached the Japanese students to understand the situation in Chōshū. Meanwhile, then-Foreign Secretary Lord John Russell disagreed with the plan for the Shimonoseki military expedition drafted by Sir Rutherford Alcock, the British Minister to Japan.

According to Reginald Russell, the students told him the following:

“Their lord (i.e., Mōri, the daimyo of Chōshū) sought to achieve the following objectives as a defense against European aggression.

First, they wished to overthrow the 'unjust government' of the Taikun (大君, another name for the Shogun used in addressing foreigners during the Edo period), which was abhorred by all Japanese people of sound mind at the time.

Second, they aimed to restore peace and order to the country not by expelling foreigners,

but by restoring the power of the Mikado (帝, Emperor), which the Taikun had long usurped.

The Taikun's government was the target and object of destruction for all anti-government elements, including themselves.

The majority of the people, including the Emperor and many powerful daimyo, hoped to weaken the Taikun's power by involving him in conflicts with the 'Western powers,' and then to restore that power to the rightful sovereign.

Second, they wished to remove the veil that obscured the eyes of foreigners, so that any treaty they might conclude with the Taikun would be considered non-binding or in no way beneficial, as it was not approved or recognized by the true Emperor and thus ran counter to the sentiments of the entire nation.

Therefore, they hoped that the Western powers would conclude treaties directly with the Mikado, who was recognized by all the people and represented them, expecting that this would extend the benefits of diplomatic and commercial relations to all classes and parties. They stated that the current 'unjust government' of the Taikun had monopolized all these advantages.

(Omitted) They said that if he (the Emperor) were to learn more about foreign countries—that is, if they told the Emperor in Kyoto that it would be easier for him to conclude treaties with foreign countries independently—all Japanese people should respect his wishes. ... They also stated that the benefits of a treaty with the Mikado would apply equally to foreigners and Japanese. That is, foreigners would have their lives and property safely guaranteed in Japan, and the Japanese would no longer have to engage in civil war over this matter. Above all, the benefits of trade, which had been monopolized by the Taikun's officials,

would be equally enjoyed by all classes in Japan.

3. Itō Cuts His Topknot, Glover Becomes a Samurai_Glover Garden

Reginald Russell and the Japanese students had two meetings, and they conversed using both English and Japanese. In response to Russell's question about the purpose of the Chōshū Five's visit to Britain, they replied that they were studying 'applied sciences' and 'technologies useful for the development of their country,' and learning European languages. They also explained that the reason two of them returned was 'to report on all they had experienced and to request that more students be sent to Europe.' They concealed the true reason for Inoue Kaoru and Itō's return to Japan. Perhaps they truly believed that Japan could be saved if more young men experienced Western civilization. They wanted to persuade the Imperial Court, not the Shogunate, to conclude treaties with foreign powers to restore peace and order.

In their answers to Russell's questions, they repeatedly emphasized 'applied sciences' and 'technology' over 'naval expertise,' and stated that during their six months at UCL, they had come closer to their goal of becoming 'useful individuals for Japan's modernization.' Their excellent performance at UCL demonstrated their deep commitment. Indeed, at the end of the 1864 academic year, Yamao and Endo received certificates for successfully completing the applied chemistry course, ranking 4th and 5th overall, respectively. The five individuals, including the two who returned, had a clear vision for the unification of Japan.

Conclusion

The study abroad of the Chōshū Five in Britain was an event that cannot be overlooked in the development of Japan. Given the unstable domestic and international situation at the time, and the Shogunate's absolute prohibition of overseas travel, their decision to personally seek out and learn in a foreign land they had never experienced before would have been impossible without a willingness to risk their lives. At that time, the Chōshū Five, including Itō, were determined to become 'human weapons' with the sole purpose of 'Revering the Emperor and Expelling the Barbarians' (尊王攘夷), paradoxically vowing to 'learn from the West in order to drive out the Western barbarians.' In particular, the process of shedding tears and cutting their topknots and donning Western suits just before their departure must have been a humiliating experience of self-annihilation of their way of life and traditional identity, not merely a condition for successful clandestine departure. However, it was precisely this that dramatically demonstrated that their commitment to their country remained unchanged.

Many people contributed to the Chōshū Five. Internally, there was significant support from the military strategist Sakuma Shōzan, who enlightened them to make such a vow, and from Sufu Masanosuke (周布正之助), a prominent figure in the Chōshū domain government who provided them with study abroad funds. Externally, the roles of Samuel Gore of No. 1, Yokohama, who helped them to secretly travel to Britain, and Glover, a merchant who contacted E.H. Hunter & Co. to accept them and provided support to evade the Shogunate police, were also crucial. In addition to their successful arrival in Britain with such internal and external assistance, the help of Alexander Williamson's family, who supported their adaptation and learning there, and the continuous support from E.H. Hunter & Co. provided by Hugh Matheson and the Cooper family were indispensable. In particular, the accommodation and meals provided by Williamson and Cooper were of great help to the subsequent Japanese students, including the 19 students from Satsuma, who were sent to Britain to learn about Western civilization, enabling them to study stably. Without the help of any one of these individuals, the Chōshū Five as we remember them today might not have existed. Above all, Glover's assistance, which served as a secret bridge between Britain and Japan during the most dangerous initial departure phase, was decisive.

The mindset of the Chōshū Five, including Itō, underwent significant changes amidst a series of events. Their initial mindset of practicing 'Revere the Emperor and Expel the Barbarians' (尊王攘夷) was augmented by Sakuma Shōzan's assertion of learning from the West as a means. Furthermore, their mindset, which aimed at expelling foreigners, vanished instantly before the Western civilization they encountered in Shanghai and London. Subsequently, through the Western culture they encountered, they changed, developing new ideas about opening Japan and abolishing the feudal domains (廃藩置県), and returned as 'human weapons.'

Glover's case also evolved from his initial mindset of making money through commerce with his mentor Mackie to a mindset of making money through weapons by mediating between the pro-Shogunate and anti-Shogunate factions within Japan's political landscape. In the process, his resentment towards the Shogunate, which unconditionally blocked trade with anti-Shogunate domain merchants residing in Nagasaki, developed into an intention to secretly support the anti-Shogunate forces.

Ultimately, the meeting of these two actors profoundly influenced each other's evolving mindsets, contributing to the successful dispatch of the Chōshū Five and laying the foundation for the successful Meiji Restoration, a new dawn for Japan. The meeting of Itō, who cut his topknot, and Glover, who became a samurai, is a significant part of history that developed with a mysterious aspect in Anglo-Japanese relations in the 19th century.

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