1. The Dignity of Empire: What Makes an Empire Imperial_National Museum of China <Pacifying the Dzungars> The Dignity of Empire: What Makes an Empire Imperial

National Museum of China <Pacifying the Dzungars> · Ju Eun-woo · Ewha Womans University

The "Imperial Dream" of Modern China and the Legacy of the Great Qing Empire

The Qing Empire grew to its maximum extent over several centuries, and the basic territorial configuration from that era is still maintained in modern China today. One of the most significant legacies that the Qing Dynasty bequeathed to contemporary China is precisely this expansion of borders and imperial experience. It is nearly impossible to imagine modern China's vision of East Asia without considering the blueprint completed during the Qing Dynasty. To properly understand the mindset of modern China, which, under the leadership of Xi Jinping, challenges the existing international order centered around the United States with a Sinocentric order (Pax Sinica) represented by 'Chinese values' and 'Chinese standards,' it is necessary to examine the Qing Dynasty, the most imperial period in Chinese history. This is because, compared to the preceding Ming Dynasty, its territory doubled, and regions such as Inner Mongolia, Manchuria including Jilin Province, Liaoning Province, and Heilongjiang Province, Tibet, and the present-day Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region were incorporated into the Sinocentric world only during the Qing Dynasty.

From Mongolia to the Himalayas, expanding outwards to the Sea of Okhotsk and Lake Balkhash. Understanding this century of dynamic integration of diverse regions, including inland China and Taiwan, is an indispensable piece of the puzzle for contemporary international relations scholars seeking to comprehend, measure, and evaluate the mindset of China, even though it is a somewhat complex and delicate task. This is because the imperial spatial imagination that can be glimpsed in modern China's diplomatic policies and external relations was only fully realized during the 'Great Qing Empire' that we will now examine. Is the impression that modern China's imperial dream of a unified multi-ethnic state resembles that of the Great Qing Empire merely a misconception? Although the order has shifted from the traditional Sinocentric order to a new arena of a complex world order, a profound understanding of how China's material and mental landscapes operate today may require us to look back at the Qing Dynasty from four centuries ago.

To broadly outline the position of the Qing Dynasty in Chinese history, it was a transitional period from the traditional Sinocentric order to the modern international order. Therefore, frameworks that lean towards either extreme of these two order systems cannot vividly capture the world order achieved by the Great Qing Empire. It will be difficult to truly understand the Qing Dynasty by adhering to Fairbank's theory of the Sinocentric order, which emphasizes the unitary world and the principle of ritual governance (li), or to the discussions by Morris Rossabi, who sought to capture a pluralistic world order closer to the modern international order. The reason we perceive the Qing world order differently from that of other dynasties is not simply because it was a dynasty founded by non-Han peoples; that explanation only reveals half the truth. Considering all Chinese dynasties, the Qing Dynasty was the period when the four principles of governance of the Sinocentric order exhibited the most complex patterns. This complexity of governance principles was one of the most decisive factors enabling the formation and development of the Great Qing Empire.

The Dignity of Empire: What Makes an Empire Imperial

The four principles of governance that drive the traditional Sinocentric order—ritual governance (li), appeasement (hui), strategic submission (ji), and punitive expedition (zheng)—can ultimately be determined by the proportion and nature of the material and mental elements. When dealing with other countries or peoples through ritual governance, it signifies a greater emphasis on seeking legitimacy for rule rather than exercising the power to rule. Furthermore, in the case of ritual governance, its legitimacy is based on Confucian principles and order. In complete contrast, punitive expedition relies more on material elements than mental ones, as it involves coercion through physical force.

If we broadly divide the sphere of influence of the Great Qing Empire into the Central Plains region, and the northwestern regions of Mongolia, Tibet, and the Dzungars, the mental power was most strongly applied in Tibet, while material power was most strongly applied in Dzungaria. In the Tibetan region centered around Lhasa, the Qing was able to incorporate it into its sphere of influence by leveraging the relationships formed with Tibetan Buddhist leaders since the reign of Hong Taiji, who founded the Qing Empire. Instead of conquest through military force or military alliances, the Qing emperors established their authority by assuming the role of protectors of Tibetan Buddhism. Although not Confucian in nature, this was a principle of governance that was non-coercive and based on legitimacy, most prominently exemplified by ritual governance.

The regions where both mental and material forces were simultaneously at play include Mongolia and the Central Plains. When Ejei of the Borjigin clan, a representative of the Mongols, presented the Imperial Seal of the Yuan Dynasty, the "Jiegu Zhibao," to Hong Taiji, and after the fall of the Ming Dynasty, the Qing began its entry into Beijing from Shenyang, the Qing emperors held both titles: 'Successor to the Khans of the northwestern nomadic societies' and 'Son of Heaven ruling the world (in the traditional sense).' The Qing elevated the status of Mongolian landlords and allowed them to retain their existing administrative systems. Although there was a certain degree of military control, the traditional Chinese land management systems and the Ming bureaucratic system were also continued in the Central Plains. For both the Mongols and the Han Chinese, although the origin of their ruling authority and the methods of governance were very different, the Qing utilized both mental and material elements to rule them, and their ethnic identities were generally preserved.

Excluding the Qing Dynasty's foreign policy towards Dzungaria, where material elements were most prominent, it is evident that the Qing Dynasty employed a wide variety of governing tools to exist as an 'empire.' As an empire founded by the Manchu, a non-Han ethnic group originating from the northwestern regions, not only was the concept of 'Tianxia' (all under heaven) spatially expanded, but the principles of governance for operating this Tianxia were also extremely complex. In addition to the complex forms of ritual governance, appeasement, strategic submission, and punitive expedition, governance of Tibet was also possible, based on Buddhist order, utilizing mental influence. Under this governance, a unique landscape was created where various ethnic groups were integrated but not uniformly unified. The Qing Dynasty's Tianxia was the most imperial Tianxia. The dignity of an empire that bound together various ethnic groups and political entities lay precisely in the fact that, despite this unity, its methods and composition were not monolithic. Thus, the Great Qing Empire was able to possess the appearance and dignity of an empire.

<Pacifying the Dzungars>: The Emperor's Journey Over Mountains and Rivers

We will continue the rest of the story through the relationship between the Qing and the Dzungars, where material force is most clearly observed. The principle of punitive expedition manifested to its extreme in <Pacifying the Dzungars>. Over 80% of the Dzungar population, including not only the ruling class but also civilians, were massacred or died from diseases such as the plague, marking the end of the last nomadic empire. To understand why the Qing chose the extreme of punitive expedition, resulting in the annihilation of a people, against the Dzungars, we must examine how the material and mental elements that formed the basis of the Qing's foreign policy towards the northwestern frontier were constituted at the time.

It is important to bear in mind that the northwestern region served as the very soil for the germination of the Qing as a nation-state, long before it bore the fruit of the Great Qing Empire. As the Qing occupied the Central Plains and the axis of the empire shifted to the Yellow River, there was a tendency in later periods to implicitly downplay the importance of the relationship between the Qing and the northwestern regions. However, tracing back the flow of history reveals that maintaining stable relations with the states and peoples of the northwestern region was a long-cherished aspiration for successive emperors from the very beginning of the 'Great Qing Empire' narrative. And at the core of this aspiration lay the troublesome 'Dzungars,' who could not be controlled solely by ritual governance and appeasement through the appropriate application of 'mental influence.'

The Qing's campaign to pacify the Dzungars officially began during the reign of Kangxi, and Qianlong, as if faithfully completing the task that his grandfather could not finish, brought it to a close by annihilating the Dzungars. Considering Kangxi alone, while he did not personally lead troops in the three rebellions instigated by Han Chinese warlords over a period of eight years, his personal expedition against the threat posed by the Dzungars led by Galdan is a noteworthy event. Throughout the long history of Chinese dynasties, there have been only a handful of instances where an emperor personally led an army beyond the Gobi Desert. The fact that Emperor Kangxi personally led an expedition into this region, which had been considered a forbidden zone for Chinese emperors since the death of Emperor Yongle of the preceding Ming Dynasty during his northern expedition, can be seen as evidence that the emperors of the Great Qing Empire held an authority beyond that of the Son of Heaven ruling the Central Plains, which was the center of the traditional Sinocentric order. If the Qing emperor, who received the Mandate of Heaven, were to ignore Galdan's ambitions as the Great Khan of the northwestern region encompassing Mongolia and Tibet, the loss of control over the nomadic societies would be a foregone conclusion in the near future. Moreover, it would result in the collapse of the buffer zone against the threats from Russia and the Islamic world beyond the Altai Mountains, exposing themselves directly to external threats.

Each time Emperor Kangxi embarked on his expedition against the Dzungars, he sent daily reports to the Crown Prince in Beijing. The records from these letters reveal Kangxi's speech to his ministers, who were frustrated by Galdan's superior forces, in which he shed tears: "Galdan has plundered the wealth of the Khalkha and Outer Mongolian peoples and caused them suffering, which is why I am now... setting out on this campaign. If we return now... what shall I report to Heaven, the Imperial Ancestral Temple, and the State Altars upon my return to Beijing?" (From Vol. 22 of 'Strategies for Pacifying the Desert,' translated in 'Letters of Emperor Kangxi,' p. 108). This indicates that, in Kangxi's eyes at the time, the campaign to pacify the Dzungars was a complex issue involving not only the maintenance of ruling authority over the northwestern peoples but also the strengthening of ruling authority over the Central Plains as a great Chinese emperor who had achieved territorial expansion. Therefore, it was dealt with through physical force and material elements, i.e., 'punitive expedition,' more than any other region. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the ruling class of the Khalkha, who were being pursued by Galdan as the main enemy, sought refuge from the Qing. Gaining the support of the Khalkha ruling class meant drawing the lords of the Outer Mongolian region into the Qing's sphere of influence, and it was also intertwined with the protection of Tibetan Buddhism, which greatly contributed to legitimizing the Qing Dynasty's rule throughout the Mongolian region. After Kangxi's personal expedition achieved a series of victories in battle and Galdan's death, the appointment of Zhebtsundamba Khutughtu, a Khalkha Mongol, as the head of the Yellow Sect within his jurisdiction in 1718 should also be seen as having the underlying intention of further strengthening the Qing Dynasty's influence over the Tibetan Buddhist sphere.

Emperor Qianlong, another key figure in achieving the final period of prosperity of successive Chinese dynasties, is the one who accomplished the 'permanent resolution of the Dzungar issue.' This was achieved through a method that was radically different from the principles of governance that operated in Tibet, Mongolia, and the Central Plains. After the death of Galdan Tseren, the new leader of the Dzungars and a worthy adversary to Kangxi, internal power struggles arose, and the treaty signed between the Qing and the Dzungars at the end of the Yongzheng era and the beginning of the Qianlong era was easily shattered. For Qianlong, there was no longer any reason to tolerate the Dzungars' capriciousness and threats. The supply lines to the northwest had already been established since Emperor Kangxi's personal expedition, and the campaign against the Dzungars presented an unparalleled opportunity to strengthen the legitimacy of his rule over the territories and peoples he governed, including Tibet, Mongolia, and the Central Plains.

Even after suffering a crushing defeat in the battle against Kangxi, the Dzungars were reunified under Galdan Tseren and continued to harbor ambitions of dominating Qing-controlled territories. Tolerating the Dzungars' frequent incursions into the Mankha (Mongolia north of the Gobi), the Khalkha to the east, and Lhasa to the south, and expanding their territory, was akin to nurturing a spark that would later plunge the Great Qing Empire into great danger. Moreover, given that the Qing had secured its legitimacy of rule by providing protection and acting as a protector to Tibet and Mongolia, failure to address the Dzungar issue promptly would inevitably lead to the loss of hegemony in the vast nomadic region of the northwest to the Dzungars. Meanwhile, the internal division within the Dzungars and Amursana's request for assistance from Qianlong provided the Qing with the optimal timing for a final resolution of the Dzungar issue.

Furthermore, at that time, Qianlong keenly felt the need to preserve the 'Manchu character' from the Qing ruling class, the Manchus, who were becoming accustomed to a life of ease, luxury, and cultural assimilation with the Han Chinese. This is evident from Qianlong's statement in Volume 3 of 'Qianlong's Imperial Edicts' where he mentions reading a passage from the 'Veritable Records of Emperor Shengzu (Kangxi)': "Although all under heaven is at peace, military preparations cannot be neglected. The Manchu people must diligently maintain their military readiness, continue hunting, and practice diligence... This is something the Han people cannot easily achieve..." Upon reading this, I was filled with awe and trepidation." His self-proclaimed title of 'Ten-Great Campaigns Elder' succinctly encapsulated the fact that he was a 'Son of Heaven of Manchu origin' who had fulfilled the Mandate of Heaven for the unification of all under heaven. Considering that all ten of Qianlong's campaigns were named after battles fought on the frontiers of China, the act of defending the Central Plains from external threats and unifying the world served as a factor in strengthening the Qing Dynasty's legitimacy of rule over the Central Plains. Additionally, records such as "In the past, His Majesty the Emperor (Kangxi) and His Imperial Father (Yongzheng) attacked the Dzungars multiple times... but could not seize the opportunity... As the ruler who governs all things under heaven, I encompass everything, and it is right for me to take on the role of regulating the affairs of the nomadic peoples with an eye toward the distant future... Our Manchu tradition dictates that when summoned for war, everyone rallies... Now, I have achieved a great victory..." (From Vol. 490 of 'Veritable Records of the Qing Dynasty,' interpreted in 'Emperor Qianlong,' p. 213) reveal that the 'Tianxia' that Qianlong referred to was a space expanded beyond that envisioned by dynasties of Han Chinese origin. Therefore, the Qing Dynasty, which governed this realm, was not only the Son of Heaven receiving the Mandate of Heaven in the Central Plains but also the great Khan of the northwestern nomadic peoples. Another record boasts of the superiority of the Manchu Qing Dynasty by comparing the great unification achieved by Qianlong to that of the Han, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties (From Vol. 587 of 'Veritable Records of the Qing Dynasty,' interpreted in 'Emperor Qianlong,' p. 211).

Qianlong's first campaign, which began in late March 1755, ended in the defeat of the Dzungars, who had not clearly realized that the Qing's blade was aimed at them. At this time, Qianlong, rather than thoroughly destroying the Dzungars, divided the tribes into various groups and appointed individual leaders to prevent the formation of a strong confederation like the Dzungars during the Kangxi era. However, before long, alliances formed among the tribes, and they began to show intentions of resisting Qianlong's will. Qianlong concluded that it was practically impossible to bring the Dzungars under complete Qing control and, through a second campaign, effectively annihilated the Dzungar people, as most of the population was killed or died of disease. Thus, the Dzungars disappeared from history as the last Mongol nomadic empire.

As the saying goes, history is written by the victors, and it has become difficult to find records related to the Dzungars, the losers of history. Most of the remaining records concerning the Dzungars were written by the Qing and from the Qing's perspective. In contrast, the Qing utilized all available means, including books, paintings, steles, and maps, to commemorate Qianlong's achievements and thereby strengthen the legitimacy of the Qing Dynasty's rule over the Central Plains and the northwestern regions. For example, the Dacheng Hall in Beijing's Confucian Temple (Taixue) can be considered a sacred site of 'civil' achievements, honoring figures and accomplishments related to 'civil' matters of the Qing Dynasty. Within this site, dedicated to honoring Confucius and the Taixue, one can find steles related to 'military' achievements that seem out of place with the original purpose and tradition; one such stele is the Stele Commemorating the Victory over the Dzungars. Qianlong's achievements in subjugating nomadic peoples and expanding the existing Sinocentric worldview held value beyond mere 'great military prowess,' and the Qing Dynasty's political objective of demanding submission from the Han Chinese by widely publicizing these achievements was hidden within. Furthermore, records such as "In the past, His Majesty the Emperor (Kangxi) and His Imperial Father (Yongzheng) attacked the Dzungars multiple times... but could not seize the opportunity... As the ruler who governs all things under heaven, I encompass everything, and it is right for me to take on the role of regulating the affairs of the nomadic peoples with an eye toward the distant future... Our Manchu tradition dictates that when summoned for war, everyone rallies... Now, I have achieved a great victory..." (From Vol. 490 of 'Veritable Records of the Qing Dynasty,' interpreted in 'Emperor Qianlong,' p. 213) reveal that the 'Tianxia' that Qianlong referred to was a space expanded beyond that envisioned by dynasties of Han Chinese origin. Therefore, the Qing Dynasty, which governed this realm, was not only the Son of Heaven receiving the Mandate of Heaven in the Central Plains but also the great Khan of the northwestern nomadic peoples. Another record boasts of the superiority of the Manchu Qing Dynasty by comparing the great unification achieved by Qianlong to that of the Han, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties (From Vol. 587 of 'Veritable Records of the Qing Dynasty,' interpreted in 'Emperor Qianlong,' p. 211).

The Great Qing Empire and the Dzungars: Finding the Blueprint in <Pacifying the Dzungars>

The fact that the element of punitive expedition, among the principles of operating the Sinocentric order, is most strongly evident in <Pacifying the Dzungars> is not merely a result of Emperor Qianlong's personal belligerence, but rather stems from thorough and meticulous calculations aimed at eliminating threats to the Qing's dominance and legitimacy over the Central Plains and the northwestern regions, and conversely, strengthening them. An empire becomes an empire through a sophisticated harmony of mental and material elements, much like piecing together a single work of art from various scraps of fabric of different materials and colors. To connect disparate ethnic groups and political entities, the thread and needle of military power and legitimate rule are necessary. The final resolution of the Dzungar issue, which continuously sought to weaken these connections, the stabilization of rule over the northwestern regions, and the enhancement of the status of the emperor of the Central Plains through the acquisition of vast territories—all of these were the Qing Dynasty's blueprints hidden within <Pacifying the Dzungars>.

The element of conquest in the principles of world order, as seen in <The Pacification of the Jungars>, was not merely a result of Emperor Qianlong's personal belligerence. Rather, it stemmed from thorough and meticulous calculations aimed at eliminating threats to Qing's dominance and legitimacy over the Central Plains and the Northwest, and conversely, strengthening them. For an empire to become an empire, it requires: 1. The Dignity of an Empire: What Makes an Empire Dignified_National Museum of China. <The Pacification of the Jungars> is an endeavor that requires the harmonious integration of sophisticated imagery and material objects, much like piecing together a work of art from scraps of different materials and colors. To unite disparate ethnic groups and political entities, the thread and needle of military might and legitimate rule are essential. The final resolution concerning the Jungars, who continuously sought to weaken these seams, the stabilization of rule in the Northwest, and the enhancement of the Emperor's status as ruler of the Central Plains through the acquisition of vast territories – all of these were part of the Qing Dynasty's blueprint hidden within <The Pacification of the Jungars>.

Through the "Pacification of the Dzungars," the journey back over 400 years allowed us to contemplate the 'dignity of the Qing Empire as an empire' and, despite this, the 'underlying reasons why the Qing Dynasty had no choice but to destroy the Dzungars.' Discussing the drama of history, where victors and vanquished are clearly defined, seems to hold the tragedy of being unable to know the vanquished's perspective at all. Nevertheless, the story of the Qing, the Dzungars, and the northwestern region is an essential part of discussing the imperial dream that China made a reality, and modern China which is once again dreaming such a dream. Or, it might be a precious artifact unearthed from the site of 'East Asian Order Construction,' for those of us seeking broader geopolitical imagination, such as imperial international politics. The Qing was clearly a new phenomenon distinct from the traditional Sinocentric world, but in its success as an empire, there existed ruling methods, logic, ideologies, and legitimacy that coexisted the old and the new. It could be said that the value of 'learning from the past to understand the new' (温故知新) was appropriately demonstrated in the Qing's imperial politics. This can be considered the imperial imagery of the Qing era, hidden within the imperial dream of modern China, which we have explored through the "Pacification of the Dzungars."

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