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[EAI Ukraine Issue Briefing] ② Was Russia's invasion of Ukraine inevitable?
Nota del editor
The East Asia Institute (EAI) has planned a special issue briefing series to provide a comprehensive perspective on the Russia-Ukraine war from the viewpoints of stakeholders such as the United States, Russia, and Ukraine, and to discuss the implications of this situation for South Korea's foreign and security policy direction. In the second report of the series, Professor Kang Yoon-hee of Kookmin University analyzes that the current war was triggered as Ukraine's recently strengthened close military cooperation with NATO emerged as a serious security threat to Russia. Furthermore, she emphasizes that Russia's military action is not a "wrong" act based on the madness of Putin as an individual, but a calculated action stemming from a strategy to maximize its own security interests. The author predicts that the Russia-Ukraine war will go through a lengthy process to reach negotiations, and its repercussions will not be limited to the two countries.
On February 24, Russia launched an invasion of Ukraine under the name of a "special military operation." Although military tensions around Ukraine had been escalating since November of the previous year and there were specific warnings about the possibility of a Russian invasion, Russia's unilateral invasion of Ukraine shocked the world. As the war drags on longer than expected, international condemnation has poured down on Russia for disregarding the principles of Ukrainian sovereignty and territorial integrity, and extensive sanctions have been imposed.
Then why did Russia take the extreme measure of invading Ukraine? Was it due to Putin's "dream of rebuilding the Soviet Union" or his ambition for the "resurgence of a strong Russia"? Or did it occur because Russia misjudged the situation, failing to properly predict the West's strong response and the Ukrainian people's resistance?
This issue briefing aims to present the grounds for judging the current war as inevitable from Russia's perspective, analyze Russia's objectives in this war, and predict how future peace negotiations will unfold. Fundamentally, this manuscript emphasizes that Russia is approaching the Ukraine issue solely from a military security perspective and views it within the framework of highly realist great power international politics. From this viewpoint, it can be seen that Russia's military action is not a "wrong" act based on "individual madness" but a prepared and calculated action stemming from a strategy to maximize its own security national interests.
1. Why did Russia not limit its military operation to the Donbas conflict?
What is Ukraine to Russia?
Ukraine is one of the 15 countries that seceded from the former Soviet Union. For Russia, these former Soviet countries are, or should be, under its sphere of influence. However, the reality is far from Russia's wishes. The Baltic states have already joined NATO (The North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and the European Union (EU), completely breaking away from Russia's sphere, and Ukraine and Georgia are trying to follow suit. The problem is that Ukraine, with its vast territory (the largest in Europe excluding Russia), occupies a crucial geopolitical position bordering Russia to the east and EU/NATO countries to the west. Furthermore, Ukraine's border with the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov makes it militarily strategic. Therefore, depending on which side Ukraine stands between the East and the West, the balance of power between the so-called Western liberal democratic forces and Russian authoritarian forces can be completely altered. This is why Russia cannot afford to leave Ukraine to its own devices. Following the Euromaidan events in Ukraine in 2014, Russia swiftly annexed Crimea, making the Black Sea Fleet in Crimea entirely Russian. It also left the Donbas conflict in eastern Ukraine, led by pro-Russian separatist forces.
The Donbas Conflict and the Non-Implementation of the Minsk Agreements
The most noteworthy aspect of the current situation is that Russia's invasion is not limited to resolving the Donbas conflict. The Donbas conflict arose in 2014 when pro-Russian separatists declared the independence of the Donetsk People's Republic (DPR) and the Luhansk People's Republic (LPR) in Ukraine and engaged in combat with the Ukrainian government forces. In contrast to its swift annexation of Crimea in 2014, Russia did not "officially" intervene in the Donbas conflict at that time. Of course, it is true that Russian weapons and mercenaries were deployed to the Donbas region. In 2015, Russia signed the Minsk Agreements[1] with Germany, France, and Ukraine, intending to leave the Donbas region as an autonomous area within Ukraine.
Leaving the Donbas conflict unresolved in this manner could have two effects. First, if the Minsk Agreements were fully implemented, the autonomous Donbas region would provide a channel for Russia to indirectly interfere in Ukraine's internal politics by voicing pro-Russian, anti-European sentiments within Ukraine. Second, if the Minsk Agreements were not implemented, as seen in the current situation, it would provide a pretext for Russia to militarily attack Ukraine. In this sense, the Donbas conflict was a rather clever long-term strategy by Russia.[2]
Unfortunately, the Minsk Agreements have not been implemented as of 2022. This is because the Ukrainian government insisted that the separatists must be disarmed first, while the separatists demanded guarantees of their autonomous status. After more than eight years, the Donbas conflict showed no signs of resolution. The problem is that as time passed, the Donbas separatist forces were increasingly pushed into a defensive position due to the strong counterattacks of the Ukrainian government forces.
Therefore, the current military operation could have been limited to resolving the Donbas conflict. According to the Russian military's explanation, two options were discussed: one limited to the Donbas conflict, and another expanding the scope of military operations to attack all of Ukraine. From the perspective of the Russian military, a war with limited objectives and limited deployment of military force would have been much easier. However, Russia's decision was the latter, not the former.
NATO's eastward expansion, the reason for deciding on a full-scale war in Ukraine?
But why was a full-scale invasion of Ukraine decided upon? Various reasons are cited, such as Russia's intoxication with its past military victories (Russo-Georgian War, intervention in the Syrian civil war), Putin's superego, or an underestimation of the Ukrainian military. However, strictly speaking, there are grounds for Russia's decision not to limit the Ukraine issue to the Donbas conflict. Key figures in the current Putin administration, primarily from military and intelligence backgrounds, fundamentally view the world through a military-strategic lens. They place the Ukraine issue within a broader military-strategic map of confrontation between Russia and the US, or Russia and NATO. This is where the issue of NATO's eastward expansion arises.
Russia has consistently raised concerns about NATO's eastward expansion since the first and second enlargements in 1999 and 2004. Russia has maintained a position of absolute opposition to Georgia and Ukraine, which were part of the Soviet Union and share borders with Russia, joining NATO. When NATO discussed the possibility of Ukraine and Georgia joining NATO under its Open Door Policy in 2008, Russia strongly protested. As seen in the note Russia sent to NATO and the US in December 2021, Russia clearly considers Ukraine's NATO membership as the most serious issue. Therefore, the question we must ask is why NATO's eastward expansion (the possibility of Ukraine joining NATO) triggered Russia's military action at this point in 2022.
Ukraine: A de facto NATO member?
Some argue that Ukraine's NATO membership was impossible anyway due to the conflict zone, and therefore Russia's opposition to Ukraine joining NATO is merely an excuse.[3]This is true. However, upon closer examination, this statement is not entirely accurate. Why is that? What has been happening between Ukraine and NATO?
Ukraine is a NATO partner country, having signed a partnership agreement with NATO in 2006. While Ukraine has not yet obtained NATO membership status, it was recognized as an "Enhanced Opportunities Partner (EOP)" in 2020, signifying a deepened bilateral relationship. The issue is that since Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014, Ukraine's military cooperation with NATO has expanded significantly, beyond what would be expected for a partner country. Firstly, NATO and Ukraine have conducted large-scale military exercises annually since 2015,[4] with some exercises taking place on Ukrainian territory and territorial waters.[5]This means NATO forces are entering Ukraine, which Russia cannot help but be highly wary of.
Secondly, the United States and NATO have provided military equipment to Ukraine. The US began exporting lethal weapons during the Trump administration in 2017, and the Biden administration has more actively supplied high-performance weapons such as Javelin missiles to Ukraine.[6]The amount provided by the US to Ukraine in 2021 alone was approximately $450 million.[7]Meanwhile, Ukraine imported dozens of Turkish-made unmanned combat drones, the "Bayraktar TB2," which inflicted significant damage on the Donbas separatists.
Thirdly, US and other Western military advisors and instructors have trained the Ukrainian military. The Yavoriv base near the Polish border was a place where foreign military advisors from the US, Canada, and other countries trained the Ukrainian military. This base also served as a hub for joint military exercises between the Ukrainian military and NATO allies.
Fourthly, Ukraine has become closer to the US since the launch of the Biden administration, and the two countries agreed in 2021 to deepen strategic defense cooperation. In addition, reports emerged that President Zelenskyy was persuading the US to host US military bases within Ukraine.[8]
What does this mean? Professor John Mearsheimer assesses that although Ukraine was not a de jure NATO member, it was a de facto NATO member.[9] As a result, the Ukrainian military became much better trained and armed than in 2014. Furthermore, continuous combat experience in the eastern Donbas region transformed it into a qualitatively different army than at the time of the Crimean annexation in 2014. Therefore, from Russia's perspective, the advantage of the Russian military over the Ukrainian military was being eroded over time. Russia judged that if the Ukraine issue could not be resolved diplomatically, it had to be resolved militarily, and it was better to do so now rather than later.
Russia's Position: A Provoked War
In addition, since 2020, situations have begun to unfold in Ukraine that have caused Russia to feel a more concrete sense of crisis.
1. The Donbas Issue: Ukraine attempted to resolve the Donbas issue militarily, leveraging its improved military capabilities. In particular, attacks using Turkish drones were highly threatening to the Donbas separatists and inflicted significant damage. Ultimately, Russia realized that the Minsk Agreements were unlikely to be implemented and that the separatists were increasingly struggling to hold their ground against the Ukrainian army without Russian assistance.
2. The Crimean Issue: Starting in 2020, Ukraine and NATO began to raise the issue of Crimea, which was forcibly annexed by Russia. In fact, prior to this, Ukraine was more focused on resolving the Donbas conflict than the Crimean issue. However, in 2021, President Zelenskyy actively pursued diplomatic efforts for the return of Crimea by hosting the "Crimea Platform," aimed at securing international support for the return of Crimea.[10] A more serious challenge came from NATO. On September 4, 2020, as part of a NATO exercise, a US B-52 bomber entered Ukrainian airspace for the first time in history and flew along the border of Crimea.[11]In June of the following year, the British destroyer HMS Defender violated Russian territorial waters near Crimea, leading to an incident where both sides fired warning shots and conducted warning bombardments.[12]
Given the military-strategic importance of Crimea to Russia, Ukraine or NATO raising the Crimean issue again poses a serious challenge to Russia, which had sought to make the annexation of Crimea a fait accompli. Russia believes that if Ukraine's military is armed with more powerful NATO weapons in the future, or if Ukraine becomes a NATO member, Ukraine might take military action to reclaim Crimea. Therefore, Russia judges it better to make Ukraine completely abandon Crimea now rather than later.
3. The possibility of Ukraine's nuclear armament: Russia is extremely wary of the possibility that Ukraine might develop its own nuclear weapons or deploy nuclear weapons targeting Russia within its territory. This is because nuclear weapons are the core of Russia's military superiority, and Ukraine's nuclear armament could create a serious crack in Russia's strategic weapon superiority. Ukraine possesses a nuclear research institute with experimental reactors and nuclear power plants capable of extracting nuclear fuel, so from Russia's perspective, the possibility of Ukraine developing nuclear weapons cannot be overlooked. Furthermore, on February 20, four days before Russia's invasion, President Zelenskyy made a rash statement, saying, "If security guarantees are not provided to Ukraine, we will reconsider the decision to abandon nuclear weapons in the past,"[13] further amplifying Russia's suspicions. President Putin, while ordering the special military operation, claimed that Ukraine was pursuing its own nuclear armament and that Russia could not tolerate this.[14]
Ultimately, Russia realized the future risks that would arise if a democratized Ukraine were to be integrated into the Western world, become militarily better armed, and acquire a status equivalent to that of a NATO member. In this context, Russia decided to carry out its military operation not just limited to Donbas but targeting the entire territory of Ukraine.
2. What are Russia's military objectives?
Prior to this military operation, President Putin cited the "protection of the residents of Donbas" as a pretext, but also presented the goals of "demilitarization" and "denazification" of "Ukraine." This implies that the current operation is not limited to resolving the Donbas conflict but fundamentally aims to resolve the "Ukraine issue."
Destruction of military infrastructure
First, Russia aims to make Ukraine abandon its ultimate goal of joining NATO, and also to nullify many of the benefits it has enjoyed as a NATO partner country. This is the meaning behind setting "demilitarization" as a goal. In fact, demilitarization was something imposed on defeated nations like Germany after World War I and Japan after World War II. Therefore, demilitarizing Ukraine inevitably requires combat operations targeting the entire territory of Ukraine. To this end, Russia launched attacks on three fronts: northern, eastern, and southern Ukraine. Through this, Russia seeks to fundamentally block anything that could pose a military threat to Russia, whether from Ukraine itself or with the support of NATO countries. What is important here is not the fall of cities but the destruction of Ukraine's military infrastructure. Thus, it inevitably destroys Ukrainian military infrastructure, such as military headquarters, ammunition depots, military fuel depots, and military bases. According to Russia's announcement, approximately 80 such facilities have been destroyed. In particular, with the possibility of Ukraine's nuclear armament in mind, it bombed the nuclear research institute in Kharkiv and occupied the Chernobyl and Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plants. The destruction of Ukraine's military infrastructure is a necessary condition for enforcing Ukraine's "demilitarization," and the fact that the Russian side stated that the "first phase" of the operation is almost complete also signifies this.
Destruction of civilian infrastructure: Scorched earth in cities, displacement of residents into refugees
Además, Rusia ha sitiado ciudades importantes como Kiev, Járkov y Mariúpol, y ha destruido infraestructura civil. Se están cortando el suministro de electricidad, agua y calefacción, y se están destruyendo las industrias clave y las torres de radiodifusión de las ciudades. En particular, el puerto de Mariúpol en la región sureña de Donbás ha sido arrasado por bombardeos continuos. Los bombardeos sobre las ciudades han provocado un aumento drástico de víctimas civiles y han generado millones de refugiados ucranianos. La provisión de “corredores humanitarios” de hecho acelera la creación de refugiados entre los habitantes de las ciudades ucranianas. Actualmente, el número de refugiados que han abandonado Ucrania y entrado en la UE, como Polonia, asciende a unos 4 millones. La creación de refugiados entre el pueblo ucraniano conducirá en última instancia a una reducción de la población de Ucrania. La población de Ucrania ya había disminuido en diez millones para el momento en que estalló esta guerra, después de la anexión de Crimea en 2014. Si a esto se suma una disminución de entre cinco y diez millones de personas, Ucrania se verá relegada a la categoría de país pequeño o mediano. Además, si los refugiados ucranianos se agolpan en la UE a causa de esta guerra, la UE podría sufrir un duro golpe económico y político por el problema de los refugiados en el futuro. En este sentido, la “aniquilación” de Ucrania y la “creación de refugiados” de su pueblo pueden considerarse objetivos ocultos no declarados de Rusia.
Control de la región de Donbás y el sur de Ucrania
Dado que antes de la guerra las fuerzas separatistas rusas solo controlaban aproximadamente un tercio de la región de Donbás, el ejército ruso intentará apoderarse por completo de toda la región de Donbás a través de esta operación militar. Rusia ha declarado que ha entrado en la segunda fase de la operación militar para exigir la anexión territorial o la independencia de la región de Donbás en el futuro. Además, para garantizar la seguridad de la península de Crimea, ha asegurado la costa del mar de Azov que conecta la península de Crimea con Donbás.
3. Perspectivas de las negociaciones de paz entre Rusia y Ucrania
A pesar de que el gobierno y el pueblo ucranianos están luchando hasta el final contra el ejército ruso y el ejército ucraniano está luchando mejor de lo esperado, Ucrania se enfrenta a la realidad ineludible de la destrucción de instalaciones militares y civiles, y las bajas y la creación de refugiados entre la población civil. A pesar de la buena actuación del ejército ucraniano y la vasta ayuda occidental, el ejército ucraniano no puede expulsar por completo al ejército ruso de su territorio. Por otro lado, Rusia no ha cesado los bombardeos sobre Ucrania incluso durante las negociaciones de alto el fuego para obtener una ventaja en las negociaciones con Ucrania. Por lo tanto, en términos generales, es muy probable que las negociaciones de paz se desarrollen de manera que se impongan las demandas de Rusia a Ucrania.
Propuesta de neutralidad de Ucrania
En primer lugar, Rusia ha presentado una propuesta de neutralidad para Ucrania. Esto incluiría la prohibición de que Ucrania se una a alianzas militares, la prohibición de la presencia de tropas extranjeras en territorio ucraniano, la prohibición de proporcionar bases militares extranjeras y la prohibición de la importación y despliegue de armas extranjeras. Es decir, Ucrania debe renunciar a unirse a la OTAN, cesar la cooperación militar con la OTAN y eliminar las armas proporcionadas por la OTAN. Mientras tanto, el estatus de Ucrania como estado no nuclear debe mantenerse. Es decir, se prohíbe el desarrollo o despliegue de armas nucleares. En última instancia, la propuesta de neutralidad de Ucrania tiene como objetivo prevenir por completo que Ucrania represente una amenaza militar para Rusia.
Ucrania busca celebrar un tratado de seguridad internacional para garantizar su seguridad a cambio de aceptar la propuesta de neutralidad. En comparación con países neutrales existentes, como Finlandia y Austria, que recibieron garantías de seguridad de Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética, o de Estados Unidos, la Unión Soviética, el Reino Unido y Francia, respectivamente, la demanda de garantías de seguridad de Ucrania es natural. Ucrania busca recibir promesas de seguridad de más países, como Estados Unidos, el Reino Unido, Turquía e Israel, y busca celebrar un tratado de seguridad que prevea la intervención automática de estos países en caso de amenaza a la seguridad. Sin embargo, cuanto mayor sea el número de países involucrados y cuanto más explícitamente se incluyan las cláusulas de intervención forzosa en caso de conflicto, menos probable será que se llegue a un acuerdo sobre el tratado.
Resolución de los problemas territoriales de Crimea y Donbás
Finalmente, Rusia ajustará los problemas territoriales. Ante todo, intentará que Ucrania reconozca la anexión permanente de Crimea a Rusia. Mientras tanto, en el caso de la región de Donbás, no se volverá al nivel del acuerdo de Minsk. Rusia ya ha declarado su intención de no devolver la región de Donbás a Ucrania al reconocer la independencia de Donbás antes del inicio de la invasión. Actualmente, Rusia está inmersa en la segunda fase de la operación militar, promoviendo la “liberación” de la región de Donbás y centrándose en su control total. Si Rusia concentra sus fuerzas militares, que estaban dispersas en varias regiones, en la región de Donbás, la probabilidad de que la región de Donbás pase a manos rusas es muy alta.
¿Reclamaciones territoriales adicionales?
Además de esto, las reclamaciones territoriales de Rusia sobre Ucrania pueden ir más allá de Crimea y Donbás. Una opción realista que Rusia podría perseguir es reclamar el territorio en el sur de Ucrania, conocido como “Novorossiya”, al sur del río Dniéper. De hecho, el avance del ejército ruso en esta región es notable. Rusia ha ocupado casi toda la costa del Mar Negro y el Mar de Azov, desde Crimea hasta Donbás, incluida Mariúpol. Si Rusia reclamará la soberanía sobre toda esta región o solo sobre la franja costera del Mar de Azov dependerá de la situación militar futura y de la intensidad de la resistencia ucraniana. Por otro lado, no se puede descartar la posibilidad de que Rusia exija la desmilitarización de la orilla derecha del río Dniéper con el pretexto de garantizar la seguridad de Donbás y Crimea y prevenir conflictos militares entre Ucrania y Rusia.
4. Perspectivas futuras
El proceso de negociación será prolongado. Esto se debe a que la negociación no se desarrollará desde el principio de manera que las dos partes negociadoras ajusten sus intereses mutuos mediante un compromiso. Es decir, la negociación se está llevando a cabo de manera que se impongan los objetivos de Rusia a Ucrania, dado que los objetivos de Rusia son claros. Por supuesto, las demandas de Rusia son muy duras e inaceptables para Ucrania. Por lo tanto, Ucrania continuará haciendo sus mejores esfuerzos diplomáticos y militares para no ser arrastrada por Rusia. Sin embargo, es muy probable que con el paso del tiempo Ucrania termine aceptando las demandas de Rusia. Ucrania ya ha comenzado a discutir la renuncia a unirse a la OTAN, la aceptación de la propuesta de neutralidad (condicional) y un compromiso en torno a la región de Donbás. Por supuesto, intentará llevar a cabo las negociaciones de la manera más favorable posible para sí misma, en lugar de la forma deseada por Rusia, pero no será fácil.
Cuanto más se prolongue la guerra, mayores serán las pérdidas de Ucrania. Por supuesto, las bajas del ejército ruso también están siendo mucho mayores de lo esperado en medio de esto, pero esto no hará que Putin modifique sus planes. El método de Rusia es imponer su voluntad a costa de terribles pérdidas humanas. Por supuesto, la situación podría cambiar si la guerra se prolonga y las sanciones económicas occidentales afectan gravemente la capacidad financiera de Rusia para continuar la guerra. A raíz de la situación en Ucrania, parece que estamos volviendo a un orden internacional extremadamente realista, donde no podemos sino aceptar el comportamiento de las grandes potencias que imponen sus intereses mediante la violencia militar y física. Las repercusiones de la situación en Ucrania no se limitarán a Rusia y Ucrania, y se espera que duren mucho tiempo.■
Referencias
Kang Gye-man, Kim Hun. 2021. <Maeil Business Newspaper>. “EE.UU. apunta al ‘punto débil de Rusia’… Estrecha lazos con Ucrania.” 2 de septiembre.
Kim Min-gyu. 2022. “Presidente de Ucrania hace una declaración explosiva: ‘Consideraremos la posesión de armas nucleares si no hay garantías de seguridad’.” <Asia Today> 20 de febrero.
Park Ji-young, Kim Jin-wook. 2021. “Rusia dispara advertencias contra destructor británico que ingresa al Mar Negro.” <Hankook Ilbo> 23 de junio.
<Segye Ilbo>. 2017. “Trump aprueba por primera vez la venta de armas letales a Ucrania.” 21 de diciembre.
Yoo Cheol-jong. 2021. “Ucrania celebra una conferencia internacional para la devolución de Crimea, anexada por Rusia: ‘Plataforma Crimea’.” <Yonhap News> 23 de agosto.
Lee Yang-gu. 2022. “¿La OTAN es una excusa? El exembajador de Ucrania explica ‘la verdadera razón por la que Putin atacó a Ucrania’.” 25 de marzo.
Lee Eui-jin. 2022. “Medios rusos informan repetidamente sobre el ‘impulso de Ucrania hacia las armas nucleares’.” <Yonhap News> 6 de marzo.
Jeon Kyung-woong. 2015. “¿Contraofensiva de Ucrania? Ejercicios militares con la OTAN.” <New Daily> 1 de abril.
. 2022. “John Mearsheimer sobre la guerra Rusia-Ucrania y ¿Quién es responsable?” 5 de marzo.
“Lista de ejercicios de la OTAN.” Wikipedia.
. 2021. “EE.UU. proporciona misiles antitanque Javelin a Ucrania.” 13 de diciembre.
[1] El acuerdo de Minsk estipula el reconocimiento de un estatus especial para Donetsk y Lugansk y el desarme de las formaciones armadas ilegales en la región de Donbás.
[2] Por supuesto, el escenario preferido inicial de Rusia era la implementación del acuerdo de Minsk.
[3] Lee Yang-gu. 2022. “¿La OTAN es una excusa? El exembajador de Ucrania explica ‘la verdadera razón por la que Putin atacó a Ucrania’.” 25 de marzo.
[4] En 2015, el ejército ucraniano envió tropas a los ejercicios Fearless Guardian, Sea Breeze y Rapid Trident de la OTAN, realizando ejercicios conjuntos en tierra, mar y aire. Jeon Kyung-woong. 2015. “¿Contraofensiva de Ucrania? Ejercicios militares con la OTAN.” <New Daily> 1 de abril.
[5] Los ejercicios de la OTAN en los que Ucrania fue país anfitrión y que se llevaron a cabo en territorio y aguas ucranianas incluyen Rapid Trident 2015, Sea Breeze 2015, Rapid Trident 2017, Clear Sky 2018, Rapid Trident 2021 y Sea Breeze 2021.
[6] A diferencia de la administración Obama, que solo proporcionó armas no letales, la administración Trump aprobó por primera vez la exportación de armas letales, como armas de fuego y municiones, en 2017. La administración Biden proporcionó a Ucrania 30 sistemas de misiles antitanque Javelin y 180 misiles Javelin en octubre de 2021. <Segye Ilbo>. 2017. “Trump aprueba por primera vez la venta de armas letales a Ucrania.” 21 de diciembre; Kang Gye-man, Kim Hun. 2021. <Maeil Business Newspaper>. “EE.UU. apunta al ‘punto débil de Rusia’… Estrecha lazos con Ucrania.” 2 de septiembre.
[7] . 2021. “EE.UU. proporciona misiles antitanque Javelin a Ucrania.” 13 de diciembre.
[8] Kang Gye-man, Kim Hun. 2021. <Maeil Business Newspaper>. “EE.UU. apunta al ‘punto débil de Rusia’… Estrecha lazos con Ucrania.” 2 de septiembre.
[9] . 2022. “John Mearsheimer sobre la guerra Rusia-Ucrania y ¿Quién es responsable?” 5 de marzo.
[10] El presidente Zelenski ha declarado su intención de seguir celebrando esta conferencia de forma regular hasta que se devuelva Crimea y ha abierto una oficina representativa en Kiev para gestionar la cuestión de la devolución de Crimea y las actividades relacionadas con la conferencia de la Plataforma Crimea. Yoo Cheol-jong. 2021. “Ucrania celebra una conferencia internacional para la devolución de Crimea, anexada por Rusia: ‘Plataforma Crimea’.” <Yonhap News> 23 de agosto.
[11] Además, como parte de los ejercicios de la OTAN, dos bombarderos estadounidenses realizaron un simulacro de ataque contra Kaliningrado, territorio ruso entre Polonia y Lituania, el 25 de septiembre. “Lista de ejercicios de la OTAN.” Wikipedia.
[12] Park Ji-young, Kim Jin-wook. 2021. “Rusia dispara advertencias contra destructor británico que ingresa al Mar Negro.” <Hankook Ilbo> 23 de junio.
[13] Kim Min-gyu. 2022. “Presidente de Ucrania hace una declaración explosiva: ‘Consideraremos la posesión de armas nucleares si no hay garantías de seguridad’.” <Asia Today> 20 de febrero.
[14] Lee Eui-jin. 2022. “Medios rusos informan repetidamente sobre el ‘impulso de Ucrania hacia las armas nucleares’.” <Yonhap News> 6 de marzo.
■ Autor: Kang Yun-heeProfesora del Departamento de Estudios Rusos y de Eurasia de la Universidad Nacional de Kookmin. Obtuvo una licenciatura y una maestría en estudios diplomáticos en la Universidad Nacional de Seúl y un doctorado en estudios rusos en la Universidad de Glasgow, Reino Unido. Ha publicado numerosos artículos, además del libro “Rusia y la política mundial”. Sus artículos recientes incluyen “El problema armenio y la diplomacia de las grandes potencias europeas: centrándose en la Guerra Ruso-Turca de 1877-78 y el Congreso de Berlín”, “Fracaso de la solución pacífica del conflicto de Nagorno-Karabaj” y “Establecimiento institucional, logros y limitaciones de la diplomacia pública rusa”. Sus principales áreas de investigación son la diplomacia de Rusia y los países de la CEI, la historia de las relaciones internacionales y el movimiento cívico.
■ Editor responsable: Lee Seung-yeonInvestigador de EAI
Contacto: 02 2277 1683 (ext. 205) | slee@eai.or.kr
*Este texto es una traducción mediante IA de un original escrito en coreano. Pueden existir errores de traducción o matices imprecisos.