[Global NK Research] A Study on Changes in North Korean Clothing and Appearance Culture under the Kim Jong-un Regime

[Editor's Note]

South Korea and North Korea, a closed regime, have had limited contact in social, economic, and cultural aspects, leading to distinct differences, particularly in clothing and appearance. Changes in North Korean clothing and appearance reflect not only the authorities' policies but also socio-economic and cultural phenomena. The author conducted this study by applying the new variable of the Kim Jong-un regime to changes in North Korean clothing and appearance, aiming to lay the groundwork for cultural research on a unified Korea. The author explains that the Kim Jong-un era marked a turning point in North Korean fashion history due to the emergence of Ri Sol-ju, the spread of the Korean Wave, the expansion of market exchanges, and Kim Jong-un's direct directives. However, the author adds that it would be an oversimplification to interpret all changes in North Korean clothing and appearance solely based on their direct connection to the regime, and that the study confirmed the inherent power of fashion as a sensory cultural style.

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I. Introduction

Since the Korean War armistice in 1953, the Korean people have lived with extremely limited mutual visits and exchanges. As a result, South Korea, a liberal democracy, and North Korea, a closed regime, have had restricted contact in social, economic, and cultural aspects, leading to mutual divergence. The gap has been particularly pronounced in clothing and appearance, a visual indicator of society and culture. The Supreme Leader's directives on clothing held absolute authority, and in a totalitarian society, clothing and appearance, which could only be sustained through state supply, were largely uniform with little diversity.

However, from the mid-1980s, the attire of North Korean residents began to change gradually with diverse colors and styles. This transformation became more pronounced after the collapse of state clothing supply in the 1990s and continued into the 2000s. The distribution of clothing through markets introduced diversity into North Korean attire and also served as an entry point for external products from countries like China and Japan. Notably, with the official launch of the Kim Jong-un regime in April 2012, North Korea showed signs of change, aiming to focus on economic construction through reform and openness, in addition to power transition. The unconventional fashion of First Lady Ri Sol-ju, who officially appeared in July 2012, became highly popular and a focal point of change. These changes in North Korean clothing and appearance can be seen as a reflection of not only the authorities' policies but also socio-economic and cultural phenomena.

This study aims to identify the changes observed in North Korean clothing and appearance under the Kim Jong-un regime. Due to the extreme scarcity of related domestic and international research, this study is deemed necessary as a foundation for cultural research on a future unified Korea. Its significance lies in applying the new variable of the Kim Jong-un regime to the field of North Korean clothing and appearance research, examining the trends of change, and providing an expanded perspective.

The research methodology involved literature review and empirical research. The literature review examined and considered previous studies and theories from domestic and international books and articles related to North Korea. For empirical research, data was collected through interviews with defectors from official organizations such as Hanawon and various social strata, as well as through photographs, TV footage, newspapers, and the internet, totaling 1,100 photographs and media reports to observe the trends of change. The collection of photographic data was divided into two periods: the period from liberation to the official launch of the Kim Jong-un regime, and the period after its launch. The post-launch period specifically ranged from April 2012 to May 2016. The collected data was classified by period and categorized by keywords. Representative images were selected through discussions with a panel of five experts with master's and doctoral degrees in fashion design for each keyword group. While no specific spatial limitations were imposed on the scope of the research, most of the collected data primarily focused on urban centers, including Pyongyang.

II. Theoretical Background

1. South and North Korean Clothing After Liberation

After liberation in 1945 and the Korean War in 1950, the Korean peninsula was divided into South and North, remaining so to this day. In South Korea, under the US military government, relief goods and smuggled items appeared, and with the return and exchange of overseas Koreans, the wearing of Western-style suits increased (Hwang, 1995), initiating the equalization of clothing that had been restricted by social status. There was also a movement to reform clothing to curb extravagance and establish Korean styles in response to the indiscriminate influx of Western fashion. In North Korea after liberation, rapid development occurred through nation-building processes, but due to division, the supply of textile raw materials was not smooth, and a movement to reform clothing was implemented, considering the practicality of traditional styles (Kim, 2012). While there were no significant differences in clothing between South and North Korea immediately after liberation, they diverged over time, with the gap widening. summarized the social changes in South and North Korea immediately after liberation, and

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organized the broad framework of clothing changes from the 1950s to the 2000s.

2. Evolution of North Korean Clothing and Appearance Culture

Examining the evolution of North Korean clothing reveals characteristic styles for each period, which can be broadly divided into five phases.

The 1950s-1960s were a period of coexistence between the People's suit and the Hanbok. Men primarily wore the People's suit or khaki-colored work clothes, and due to the repatriation of Koreans from Japan, Western-style suits were introduced to some high-ranking men. During this period, women commonly wore Joseon-ot (traditional Korean dress) with black skirts and white jackets, and one-piece trousers (Bae, 2010). Upper-class women wore Hanbok made of rayon, but the wearing of one-piece trousers was banned from the 'Mothers' Convention' in 1961 (Lee, 2010). The 1970s saw a mix of People's suits and Western suits. The first fashion show, 'Clothing Exhibition,' was held in Pyongyang in October 1978, and following Kim Il-sung's directive on colored clothing in April 1979, Western-style attire appeared in major cities, featuring diverse styles, vibrant colors, and patterns (Park, 2010). The 1980s marked the establishment of Western suits in North Korea. Following Kim Jong-il's sudden succession in 1984, directives were issued for the production of high-quality fabrics, and in May of the same year, after Kim Il-sung's visit to Eastern Bloc countries, the wearing of Western suits and ties became mandatory for participants in important events. For women, Hanbok became established for formal wear, and Western attire became commonplace. Following Kim Il-sung's remarks in 1982 allowing the exposure of women's clothing, sleeveless and low-cut tops were introduced (Park, 2010). Furthermore, the Law on Joint Ventures was promulgated in September 1984, Kim Jong-il issued directives in February 1986 regarding women's trousers and the prohibition of khaki and black colors, and the Light Industry Exhibition, showcasing clothing, knitwear, footwear, and patterns, opened in February 1988 (Lee, 2010). In 1989, the 13th World Festival of Youth and Students led to a campaign for neat attire and hairstyles, and fashion articles began to appear in party organs and media. The 1990s were a period of full-scale fashion introduction in North Korea, with diverse styles seen through market imports. Due to severe economic hardship, the state supply system for clothing collapsed (Kim, Kim, Nam, Park, Seo, Shin, & Hwang, 2015), and direct purchases through markets, which spread as a means for residents to solve their own clothing needs, led to more diverse fashion than before (Jeong, 2014). In the summer of 1990, short-sleeved t-shirts and shorts appeared, and in 1992, a fashion design competition was held in Wonsan, Gangwon Province. The fashion pictorial 'Otdarim' (Attire), containing basic clothing patterns, was published, and the Pyongyang Clothing Research Institute regularly held spring/autumn clothing exhibitions and Pyongyang city clothing exhibitions. Furthermore, patterns and manufacturing methods for different genders, ages, and classes were introduced through various publications such as Cheollima and Rodong Cheongnyeon (Choi, 2015). With the influx of Western fashion, the wearing of jeans, tight pants, culottes, and miniskirts increased among the youth, and clothing with English letters and pictures also appeared. In June 1994, a Joseon-ot appraisal was broadcast on Korean Central Television, and articles on hairstyles and makeup appeared in party organs and media.

The 2000s are classified as a period of fashion growth. In 2001, South Korean designer Lee Young-hee visited Pyongyang and held a fashion show titled 'Exhibition of National Clothing,' and from 2002 onwards, North Korea also held fashion shows annually in Pyongyang (Cho, 2001). During this period, the wearing of earrings and accessories expanded, and a 'slim look' suit became popular among men in 2008. Through the chronological changes, it can be observed that while fashion trends are influenced by socio-structural factors, the individual's desire for aesthetic expression is increasingly highlighted within them.

III. Aspects of Change in North Korean Clothing and Appearance Culture under the Kim Jong-un Regime

1. Emergence of the Royal Family and Changes in Clothing and Appearance

In July 2012, photographs of a woman accompanying Kim Jong-un were released to the media, causing a stir. After more than 20 days without any details about her identity, the media reported on July 25th, referring to her by her real name as 'Comrade Ri Sol-ju, wife of First Chairman Kim Jong-un' (Byun, 2015). The unprecedented appearance of a First Lady signaled a new role for the First Lady in the Kim Jong-un regime. North Korean residents favored Ri Sol-ju's modest and dignified appearance, which likely had a positive impact on the Kim Jong-un regime.

Due to frequent, policy-intended public appearances, residents showed great interest in Ri Sol-ju's style and began to emulate it (Lee, 2013). Ri Sol-ju's choice of trousers in official settings also drew attention. Although trousers for women were strictly regulated in the past, this served as an informal occasion for permitting women's trousers, which had not been effectively enforced since 2009, thereby garnering support from young women. Ri Sol-ju's official debut created a 'wind of fashion freedom,' causing a significant shock in the conservative North Korean society. Her style featured short, form-fitting skirts, low-cut tops, clutches, and hairstyles, and she wore brooches instead of the Kim family badges. In most of her official appearances reported by the media, Ri Sol-ju is seen carrying a clutch from Christian Dior, which is analyzed as a strategy to prevent backlash against the North Korean regime's ban on luxury goods consumption by repeatedly wearing the same clutch. Ri Sol-ju's fashion became an object of admiration and imitation for North Korean women, marking a turning point in North Korean fashion history. The preference for high heels increased among women, leading to instances of female soldiers wearing high heels with their military uniforms. Kim Jong-un's hairstyle, dubbed the 'paegi' (bold) hairstyle, also became popular among North Korean men. The First Lady Ri Sol-ju's public activities following the launch of the Kim Jong-un regime were a high-stakes image politics strategy, serving as an opportunity to alleviate anxiety about the young leader and establish him as a relatable leader through the image of a stable family.

2. Impact of Expanded Foreign Trade and the Korean Wave

Since the launch of the Kim Jong-un regime, North Korea has focused its efforts on domestic and international activities for economic development. While pursuing economic growth through market liberalization and deregulation, it has also actively sought foreign investment and expanded trade. According to a report by the UN Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in North Korea, it is estimated that over 80,000 workers have been dispatched to 16 countries, including Russia, China, and Southeast Asia, to earn foreign currency (COI, 2014). North Korea's domestic and international activities serve as channels for the influx of foreign culture. Indeed, cultural content such as dramas and movies from China and South Korea is spreading through the Chinese border region. The Moranbong Band, formed in 2012 under Kim Jong-un's directive, is analyzed as a strategy for regime stabilization and response to the influx of foreign culture. Ironically, the Moranbong Band also imitates the fashion of South Korean girl groups. The popularity of the Moranbong Band has led to trends like bobbed hair and dyed hair among the general public, and a significant increase in cosmetic surgery. Furthermore, the activation of markets has led to a more flamboyant overall fashion style influenced by Chinese imported clothing. While South Korean styles became popular, and used South Korean clothing gained popularity, restrictions on public market purchases led individuals to create their own clothing based on South Korean magazines. The influence of the Korean Wave, encountered through various channels including CDs and broadcasts produced in China or South Korea, has significantly contributed to the rapid changes in North Korean fashion.

3. Formation of 'Pyongyang Style' Driven by Pro-People Policies and Market Revitalization

Following the severe economic crisis in the 1990s, North Korea's state supply system ceased to function, leading to the formation of markets known as 'jangmadang' as an alternative solution (Choi & Lee, 2014). Under the Kim Jong-un regime's pro-people policies, these markets have further expanded and revitalized, with approximately 400 markets operating stably as of 2015. While a market economy, operating outside the traditional centralized socialist economic system, could pose a threat to the regime, it currently benefits state finances and the regime by remaining within controllable limits. The direct purchasing method through markets has brought about changes in residents' lives, particularly evident in their clothing and appearance. A characteristic change in North Korean clothing and appearance is diversity. This stems from the ability to purchase a variety of products through the market, deviating from the previous method of mass production and distribution dictated by the regime's characteristics. Markets offer clothing products in various designs and vibrant colors, and products imitating famous international brands are also readily available. In Mokse-geori, a high-end shopping street in Moranbong District, Pyongyang, limited edition Rolex watches priced over $10,000 are sold. The relatively free supply through markets has created diverse fashion styles in North Korea, and the fashion leading in lifestyle and trend, particularly in Pyongyang, has come to be known as 'Pyongyang Style.'

Furthermore, while hairstyles are basically prescribed as 18 styles, more diverse hairstyle samples are presented at the high-end hair salons in Pyeongyang's Changkwang Ward. Due to the characteristics of the North Korean system, changes in clothing and lifestyle cannot be entirely free, but it was observed that new attempts related to socio-cultural phenomena are being made.

IV. Conclusion

Under the Kim Jong-un regime, which has undergone socio-cultural, political, and economic changes while cultivating the image of a young leader, North Korea has experienced the following changes in clothing and appearance. First, the emergence of First Lady Ri Sol-ju has led to greater freedom in women's attire, and the 'Ri Sol-ju style' has become highly popular among women, positively contributing to the formation of a favorable image of Kim Jong-un. Second, the Korean Wave has spread within North Korea through various channels, leading to the widespread popularity of South Korean fashion. Third, with the expansion of markets as part of economic revitalization policies, diverse fashion styles have emerged. Fourth, there have been direct directives from Kim Jong-un regarding clothing and appearance, resulting in the appearance of elegantly uniformed flight attendants and the development of high-end cosmetics.

It is an oversimplification to interpret the changes in North Korean clothing and appearance under the Kim Jong-un regime solely based on their direct connection to the regime, as not all changes have proceeded in the direction intended by the Kim Jong-un regime. While the regime has repeatedly regulated and relaxed clothing policies with political intentions, the study has confirmed the inherent power of fashion as a sensory cultural style, which transcends regime-level control over the clothing and appearance of North Korean residents. For instance, the expansion of trade with China for economic revitalization has led to the influx of South Korean cultural content through the border, unexpectedly resulting in a Korean Wave phenomenon in fashion. Despite the severe punishment, including execution, for being caught accessing South Korean cultural content, it is proving insufficient to curb its spread. The deviations observed in clothing and appearance do not yet threaten the regime's existence, and the authorities appear to be adjusting their regulations based on the prevailing circumstances. This study is significant in providing an expanded perspective by applying the new variable of the Kim Jong-un regime to the field of North Korean clothing and appearance research, which has been extremely limited to date, and examining the trends of change.■

■ Author: Choi Hyun-sook, Professor Emeritus of Fashion Design at Dongduk Women's University. She previously served as Dean of the Graduate School of Fashion Design at the same university. She lectured as a visiting professor at Hong Kong Polytechnic University and was a full-time instructor at Chung-Ang University. She holds a Ph.D. in Clothing from Seoul National University. She worked as a designer in Seoul and Los Angeles and has held three solo exhibitions and over 60 group exhibitions in Korea and abroad. Her research primarily focuses on costume design and aesthetics of dress, and she has published over 50 papers in related academic journals. She has served as President of the Korea Fashion Culture Association, President of the Korea Apparel Industry Association, President of the Korea Textile Industry Association, President of the Korea Federation of Textile Industries, a member of the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy, and an advisory member of the Korea Fashion Association.

■ Managed and Edited by: Min Ji-yoon, Director of External Cooperation, EAI

Contact: 02 2277 1683 (ext. 203) | jymin@eai.or.kr

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