[Global NK Research] A Study on Changes in North Korean Clothing Life under the Kim Jong-un Regime

[Editor's Note]

South Korea and the closed regime of North Korea have had limited contact in social, economic, and cultural aspects, leading to significant differences, particularly in clothing life. Changes in North Korean clothing life reflect not only the authorities' policies but also socio-economic and cultural phenomena. The author conducted this study by applying the new variable of the Kim Jong-un regime to the changes in North Korean clothing life, with the aim of laying the groundwork for future cultural research on a unified Korea. The author explains that the Kim Jong-un era marked a turning point in North Korean fashion history with the emergence of Ri Sol-ju, the spread of the Korean Wave, the expansion of market exchanges, and Kim Jong-un's direct directives. However, the author adds that it is difficult to interpret all changes in North Korean clothing life solely based on their direct connection to the regime, and that the study confirmed the inherent power of fashion as a sensory cultural style.

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I. Introduction

Since the Korean War armistice in 1953, the Korean people have lived with extremely limited mutual visits and exchanges. As a result, South Korea, a liberal democracy, and North Korea, a closed regime, have had limited contact in social, economic, and cultural aspects, leading to mutual differences. The gap has widened particularly in clothing life, a visual indicator of society and culture. The Supreme Leader's directives on clothing held absolute authority, and clothing life, which could only be sustained through supplies from the authorities in a totalitarian society, was largely uniform with little diversity.

However, from the mid-1980s, the clothing of North Korean residents began to change gradually with diverse colors and styles, and these changes became more pronounced after the clothing supply system collapsed in the 1990s, continuing into the 2000s. The distribution of clothing through markets brought diversity to North Korean clothing life and also served as a channel for the inflow of external products from countries like China and Japan. Especially after the official launch of the Kim Jong-un regime in April 2012, North Korea showed signs of change, aiming to focus on economic construction through reform and openness, in addition to the transfer of power. The unconventional fashion of First Lady Ri Sol-ju, who officially appeared in July 2012, became a major trend and a focal point of change. These changes in North Korean clothing life can be seen as a reflection of the authorities' policies as well as socio-economic and cultural phenomena.

This study aims to identify the changes observed in North Korean clothing life under the Kim Jong-un regime. As related domestic and international research is extremely limited, this study is proposed as a cornerstone for future cultural research towards a unified Korea. The significance of this research lies in applying the new variable of the Kim Jong-un regime to the field of North Korean clothing life research, identifying trends in change, and providing an expanded perspective.

The research was conducted through literature review and empirical research. The literature review involved examining and considering previous studies and theories from domestic and international books and papers on North Korea. For the empirical research, data from interviews with defectors from official organizations such as Hanawon and various social strata, as well as approximately 1,100 photos and media reports collected through photos, TV footage, newspapers, and the internet, were used to examine the trends of change. The collection of photographic data was divided into two periods: the period from liberation to before the official launch of the Kim Jong-un regime, and the period after its launch. The post-launch period specifically covered April 2012 to May 2016. The collected data were classified by period and categorized by keywords. Photos within each keyword group were discussed with a panel of five experts with master's or doctoral degrees in fashion design to select representative images. While no specific spatial limitations were imposed on the scope of the research, most of the collected data were centered on urban areas, including Pyongyang.

II. Theoretical Background

1. Clothing in South and North Korea Since Liberation

After liberation in 1945 and experiencing the Korean War in 1950, the Korean peninsula was divided into the South and the North, remaining so to this day. In South Korea, under the US military government, relief goods and smuggled items appeared, and with the return and exchange of overseas Koreans, the wearing of Western-style suits increased (Hwang, 1995), and equalization of clothing, which had been restricted by social status, began. There was also a clothing reform movement to curb extravagance and establish Korean styles in response to the indiscriminate influx of Western styles. In North Korea after liberation, rapid development occurred through the nation-building process, but due to division, the supply of textile raw materials was not smooth, and a clothing reform movement was implemented that considered the practicality of traditional styles (Kim, 2012). While there was no significant difference in clothing between the South and the North immediately after liberation, the gap widened over time as they evolved in different directions. summarized the social changes in South and North Korea immediately after liberation, and

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summarizes the broad framework of clothing changes from the 1950s to the 2000s.

2. Evolution of North Korean Clothing Life

Examining the evolution of North Korean clothing reveals characteristic styles for each period, which can be broadly divided into five stages.

The 1950s-1960s was a period of coexistence between the People's suit and the Hanbok. Men primarily wore the People's suit or khaki-colored uniforms, and Western suits were introduced to some high-ranking officials due to the repatriation of Koreans from Japan (Bae, 2010). During this period, women commonly wore Joseon-ot (traditional Korean dress) with black skirts and white blouses, and trousers (Bae, 2010). For upper-class women, Hanboks made of rayon were worn, but the wearing of trousers was banned starting with the 'Mothers' Convention' in 1961 (Lee, 2010). The 1970s was a period where the People's suit and Western suits were mixed. The first fashion show, 'Clothing Exhibition,' was held in Pyongyang in October 1978, and following Kim Il-sung's directive on colored clothing in April 1979, Western-style clothing in various styles, vibrant colors, and patterns appeared among residents of major cities (Park, 2010). The 1980s was a period when Western suits became established in North Korea. After Kim Jong-il's sudden succession in 1984, directives were issued for the production of high-quality fabrics, and in May of the same year, following Kim Il-sung's visit to Eastern Bloc countries, the wearing of Western suits and ties by men at important events became mandatory. For women, Hanbok became established as formal wear, and Western clothing became commonplace. Following Kim Il-sung's remarks in 1982 allowing more revealing women's clothing, sleeveless tops and low-cut blouses were introduced (Park, 2010). Furthermore, the Joint Venture Law was promulgated in September 1984, Kim Jong-il issued directives in February 1986 regarding the wearing of trousers by women and the prohibition of khaki and black colors, and the Light Industry Exhibition Hall, showcasing clothing, knitwear, footwear, and patterns, opened in February 1988 (Lee, 2010). In 1989, the 13th 'World Festival of Youth and Students' led to a campaign for neat attire and hairstyles, and fashion articles began to be published in party organs and media. The 1990s marked the period of full-scale fashion introduction in North Korea, with diverse styles seen through market imports. Due to severe economic hardship, the state supply system for clothing collapsed (Kim, Kim, Nam, Park, Seo, Shin, & Hwang, 2015), and as a measure for residents to resolve this themselves, direct purchases through the market became widespread, showcasing more diverse fashions than before (Jeong, 2014). In the summer of 1990, short-sleeved T-shirts and shorts appeared, and in 1992, a fashion design competition was held in Wonsan, Gangwon Province. The fashion magazine 'Otdarim,' containing basic clothing patterns, was published, and the Pyongyang Clothing Research Institute regularly held spring/fall clothing exhibitions and Pyongyang city clothing exhibitions. Additionally, patterns and manufacturing methods for different genders, ages, and classes were introduced through various publications such as Cheollima and Rodong Cheongnyeon (Choi, 2015). With the influx of Western fashion, the wearing of jeans, tight pants, culottes, and miniskirts increased among the youth, and clothing with English letters and pictures also appeared. In June 1994, a Joseon-ot appraisal was broadcast on Korean Central Television, and articles on hairstyles and makeup were published in party organs and media.

The 2000s are classified as a period of fashion growth. In 2001, South Korean Hanbok designer Lee Young-hee visited Pyongyang and held a fashion show called 'Exhibition of National Clothing,' and from 2002 onwards, North Korea also held fashion shows annually in Pyongyang in the spring (Cho, 2001). During this period, the wearing of earrings and accessories expanded, and a 'slim look' suit became popular among men in 2008. Through the changes by period, it can be seen that while fashion trends are influenced by socio-structural factors, the desire for individual aesthetic sense is highlighted within them.

III. Aspects of Change in North Korean Clothing Life under the Kim Jong-un Regime

1. Emergence of the Royal Family and Changes in Clothing Life

In July 2012, photos of a woman accompanying Kim Jong-un were released to the media, causing a stir. Without further explanation of her identity, the media identified her by name on July 25, after more than 20 days, as 'Comrade Ri Sol-ju, wife of First Chairman Kim Jong-un' (Byun, 2015). The unprecedented appearance of a First Lady heralded a new role for the First Lady in the Kim Jong-un regime. North Korean residents favored Ri Sol-ju's modest and dignified appearance, and this assessment likely had a positive impact on the Kim Jong-un regime.

Due to frequent exposure, which was likely intended politically, residents showed great interest in Ri Sol-ju's style and began to emulate it (Lee, 2013). Ri Sol-ju's choice of trousers in official appearances also garnered attention. Although trousers for women were strictly regulated in the past, this marked an unofficial acceptance of women wearing trousers, which had not been strictly enforced since 2009, and helped garner support from young women. Ri Sol-ju's official appearance sparked a 'wind of fashion freedom,' causing a significant shock in the conservative North Korean society. Her style featured short, form-fitting skirts, low-cut tops, clutches, and hairstyles, and she wore brooches instead of the Kim father-son badges. In most of the official appearances reported by the media, Ri Sol-ju is seen carrying a clutch from Christian Dior, which is analyzed as a way to prevent backlash against the North Korean regime's ban on luxury goods consumption by repeatedly wearing the same clutch. Ri Sol-ju's fashion became an object of admiration and imitation for North Korean women, marking a turning point in North Korean fashion history. With an increasing number of women preferring high heels, even female soldiers were seen wearing high heels with their military uniforms. Kim Jong-un's hairstyle, known as 'Paegi hair,' also became popular among North Korean men. The First Lady Ri Sol-ju's actions since the launch of the Kim Jong-un regime represent a high-level image politics, serving as an opportunity to quell anxieties about the young leader and establish him as a friendly leader through the image of a stable family.

2. Impact of Expanded Foreign Trade and the Korean Wave

Since the launch of the Kim Jong-un regime, North Korea has focused its efforts on domestic and international activities for economic development. While pursuing economic growth through market liberalization and deregulation, it has also been active in attracting foreign investment and expanding trade. According to a report by the UN Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in North Korea, it is estimated that over 80,000 North Korean workers have been dispatched to 16 countries, including Russia, China, and Southeast Asia, to earn foreign currency (COI, 2014). North Korea's domestic and international activities serve as channels for the inflow of foreign culture, and cultural content such as Chinese and South Korean dramas and movies are spreading through the Chinese border region. The Moranbong Band, formed in 2012 under Kim Jong-un's directive upon the regime's launch, is analyzed as a strategy to stabilize the regime and respond to the inflow of foreign culture. Ironically, the Moranbong Band also imitates the fashion of South Korean girl groups. Due to the popularity of the Moranbong Band, short haircuts and dyed hair have become popular among the general public, and the number of people undergoing plastic surgery has significantly increased. Furthermore, with the revitalization of markets, fashion styles have become more flamboyant due to the influence of imported Chinese clothing. South Korean styles have become popular, with used South Korean clothing gaining popularity. However, due to social controls, purchasing them in public markets is restricted, leading people to make their own clothes based on South Korean magazines. The influence of the Korean Wave, encountered through various channels including CDs and broadcasts from China and South Korea, has significantly contributed to the rapid changes in North Korean fashion.

3. Formation of 'Pyongyang Style' Following Pro-People Policies and Market Revitalization

In the 1990s, North Korea experienced severe economic hardship, leading to the suspension of the state supply system. As an alternative to resolve this, markets, known as 'Jangmadang,' were formed (Choi & Lee, 2014). Under the Kim Jong-un regime's pro-people policies, these markets have further expanded and revitalized, with approximately 400 markets operating stably as of 2015. While a market economy, which differs from the existing centralized socialist economic system, could pose a threat to the regime, it currently contributes to state finances and the regime as it remains controllable. The direct purchase method through markets has brought about changes in the lives of residents, with particularly noticeable changes in clothing life. A characteristic change in North Korean clothing life is diversity. This stems from the ability to purchase a variety of products through the market, moving away from the previous method of mass production and supply dictated by the regime's characteristics. In the markets, clothing products with diverse designs and vibrant colors are available, and products imitating famous overseas brands can also be easily found. In Mokse-geori, a high-end shopping street in Moranbong District, Pyongyang, even limited edition Rolex watches priced over $10,000 are sold. The relatively free supply through markets has created diverse fashion styles in North Korea, and the fashion leading in terms of living standards and fashion sense in Pyongyang has come to be called 'Pyongyang Style.'

Furthermore, while hairstyles are basically regulated to 18 styles, more diverse hairstyle samples are presented at high-end beauty salons like Changgwangwon in Pyongyang. Due to the nature of the North Korean regime, changes in clothing life cannot be completely free, but new attempts related to social and cultural phenomena are being made.

IV. Conclusion

Under the Kim Jong-un regime, which has undergone socio-cultural, political, and economic changes while building the image of a young leader, North Korea has experienced the following changes in clothing life. First, the emergence of First Lady Ri Sol-ju has led to more freedom in women's attire, and the 'Ri Sol-ju style' has become very popular among women, positively contributing to the formation of a favorable image of Kim Jong-un. Second, the Korean Wave has spread within North Korea through various channels, leading to the widespread popularity of South Korean fashion. Third, with the expansion of markets as part of economic revitalization policies, diverse fashion styles have emerged. Fourth, there have been direct directives from Kim Jong-un regarding clothing life and fashion, resulting in the appearance of flight attendants in stylish uniforms and the development of high-end cosmetics.

It is difficult to interpret the changes in North Korean clothing life under the Kim Jong-un regime solely based on their direct connection to the regime, as not all changes have proceeded in the direction intended by the Kim Jong-un regime. In fact, while the regime repeatedly imposes and eases regulations on clothing with political intentions, the study has confirmed that the inherent power of fashion, which can be described as a sensory cultural style, transcends the regime's control over the clothing life of North Korean residents. For example, the expansion of trade with China for economic revitalization has led to the inflow of South Korean cultural content through the borders, unexpectedly resulting in a Korean Wave phenomenon in fashion. Despite the severe punishment, including execution, for being caught accessing South Korean cultural content, it is insufficient to prevent its spread. The deviations observed in clothing life do not yet threaten the regime's existence, and the authorities appear to be adjusting the pace of regulation based on the circumstances of the time. The significance of this study lies in providing an expanded perspective by applying the new variable of the Kim Jong-un regime to the field of North Korean clothing life research, which has been extremely limited until now, and identifying the trends of change.■

■ Author: Choi Hyun-sook, Professor Emeritus of Fashion Design at Dongduk Women's University. She previously served as Dean of the Graduate School of Fashion Design at the same university. She lectured as a visiting professor at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and worked as a full-time instructor at Chung-Ang University. She holds a Ph.D. in Clothing from Seoul National University. She worked as a designer in Seoul and Los Angeles and held three solo exhibitions and over 60 group exhibitions in Korea and abroad. Her research primarily focuses on fashion design and clothing aesthetics, and she has published over 50 papers in related academic journals. She has served as President of the Korea Fashion Culture Association, President of the Korea Federation of Textile Industries, President of the Korea Spinners and Weavers Association, President of the Korea Chemical Fibers Association, a member of the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy, and an advisory member of the Korea Fashion Association.

■ Responsible for and Edited by: Min Ji-yoon, Director of External Cooperation, EAI

Contact: 02 2277 1683 (ext. 203) | jymin@eai.or.kr

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