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[ADRN Working Paper] Making Horizontal Accountability: A Case Study of Thailand

分类
工作论文
发布日期
2023年5月3日
相关项目
亚洲民主研究网络

编者按

Thawilwadee Bureekul, Ratchawadee Sangmahamad, and Arithat Bunthueng at the King Prajadhipok’s Institute (KPI) explain that a demand for horizontal accountability appears in series with lawmakers’ incentive to make good results and independence from the government, which originate from free and fair elections. In Thailand’s case, general elections have been made under the 1997 constitution, still there has been a vulnerability in the structure of horizontal accountability. Military coup d’etat in 2006 and 2014 led to more influence of the junta on organizing a Senate which exercises the right to consent on appointments of oversight institutions and judges. Opinion polls demonstrate that citizens’ credibility on judiciary and independent commissions has gradually declined after 2015. The authors recommend revising the constitution to strengthen self-governance of constitutional organizations and the generally elected Senate, together with an extended participation of civil society actors in the lawmaking process.

MakingHorizontalAccountabilityThailand.jpg
MakingHorizontalAccountabilityThailand.jpg

1. Introduction

Thailand transitioned from junta-authoritarian rule to a democratic government before 1997, a significant continuation of the “Black May 1992” event. As a result, the 1997 Constitution was considered a democratic constitution based on the principle of constitutionalism. According to the 1997 Constitution, sovereignty is exercised by following the principle of separation of powers. The general public elects the government and parliament and serves as the impetus for forming several important state power inspection organizations known as constitutional organizations. These organizations, consisting of the National Anti-Corruption Commission, the Election Commission, the ombudsman, the National Human Rights Commission, and the State Audit Commission, are viewed as independent and are therefore not subject to cabinet control. After their inception in 1997 and subsequent 25 years of continuation, the structures and authorities of these organizations have undergone numerous changes, and the use of power has had significant impacts on people and democracy. However, Thai democracy was interrupted by the military coups d’état in 2006 and 2014.

This work investigates the overall structure of Thailand’s horizontal accountability by analyzing the roles and evolution of these organizations since their inception. Also studies are the effectiveness of Thailand’s current horizontal accountability on the development and strengthening of liberal democratic governance. Finally included in the investigation are the operation of checks and balances by the relevant organizations, the success and failure of the oversight procedures, and factors affecting the effectiveness of accountability.

This study uses documentary research by literature review on related issues and the relevant laws from articles, books, journals, and, official documents. Also explored are the case studies both in Thailand and in other countries. Moreover, representatives from academia, civil society, and other related organizations were interviewed. The research questions are: 1) Is the existing checking systеm by the executive and legislative branches sufficient and effective for democratic governance? 2) Is the judiciary branch independent or politically neutral enough to check and punish executive wrongdoings? and 3) Are oversight bodies performing well?

2. Literature Review on the Concept of Horizontal Accountability

In the social sciences, the idea of accountability remains highly debated. Dahl (1971) and Wilson (2015) explain that it is beneficial if competition among elites develops before participation increases. However, Mechkova, Luhrmann, and Linberg (2017) hypothesize that in differentiating between institutions of diagonal accountability (media and civil society), vertical accountability (connected to elections and political parties), and horizontal accountability (checks and balances across institutions), pressure for horizontal accountability grows as vertical and diagonal accountability advances. Moreover, most de facto vertical accountability forms come before the other types of accountabilities (Mechkova, Luhrmann, and Linberg 2017, 3). Effective horizontal accountability structures, such as vigorous parliaments and independent high courts, Effective horizontal accountability structures, such as vigorous parliaments and independent high courts, emerge quite late in the process and build on advancements made in other areas. Following Figure 1, the desire for more horizontal accountability is anticipated to rise as vertical accountability levels rise. Two pathways illustrate how vertical accountability can enhance the demand for horizontal accountability (Mechkova, Luhrmann, and Linberg 2017, 13).

Figure 1. Two Pathways Illustrating How Vertical Accountability Can Enhance the Demand for Horizontal Accountability

Source: Mechkova, Luhrmann and Linberg 2017, 13

This paper investigates Thailand's horizontal accountability mechanisms, beginning with structural or legal considerations. Conducting a comparative study of the 1997, 2007, and 2017 Thai Constitutions to analyze the changing trend of Thailand's horizontal accountability mechanisms and to study the situation of horizontal accountability in Thailand using case examples demonstrates the effectiveness of this form of accountability as defined by the Constitution or law as law in action or de facto horizontal accountability that is not limited to law in book or de jure. In addition, the horizontal accountability in this study focus on the ability to check the government by the parliament, the courts, and the independent constitutional organizations.

3. Structure of Horizontal Accountability Mechanisms in Thailand

In Thailand, the 1997 Constitution is said to be one of the most democratic constitutions (Aphornsuvan 2001) and was the prototype of the principles of constitutionalism that appeared in subsequent constitutions until now.

We may classify the structure of horizontal accountability mechanisms in the provisions of the 1997, 2007, and 2017 Thai Constitutions the same way as we do actors, divided into three groups: legislature, judiciary and oversight institutions.

3.1. The role of the Legislature in Checks and Balances on the Government

The parliament is one of the three major political institutions that exercise sovereignty, as the legislative branch has important roles in legislation and the checks and balances of the administration. Since the change from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy in 1932, until now, there have been 20 constitutions (with 13 coup d’états). Although it started with unicameralism, Thailand currently utilizes a bicameral systеm. However, the provisions of the 1997, 2007, and 2017 Constitutions require Thai lawmakers to adopt a form of bicameralism, dividing the lower house into the House of Representatives and the upper house into the Senate. The origin of the legislation, comparing between 1997, 2007, and 2017, are as follows.

Table 1. Comparing the Origins of Oversights Institutions According to the 1997, 2007, and 2017 Constitutions

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The origin of the legislatureThe 1997 ConstitutionThe 2007 ConstitutionThe 2017 Constitution
membersThe originmembersThe originmembersThe origin
House of representatives500- 100 from party-list 
- 400 from the general election
480- 80 from party-list 
- 400 from the general election
500- 100 from party-list 
- 400 from the general election[1]
Senate200from the general election150- 77 from the general election 
- 73 from appointment
200from a selection

Powers and functions of the House of Representatives

The House of Representatives is responsible for providing checks and balances on the work of the government in several ways. Its primary role is to consider bills, but there are also roles to evaluate the annual expenditure budget; make the approval on an emergency decree; control the Administration of State Affairs; constitute a standing committee order to perform any act; inquire into facts or study any matter and report its findings to the House; and the approve of the appointment of a person as Prime Minister.

Powers and functions of the Senate

The three constitutions do not give the Senate the authority to propose bills; however, once the House of Representatives approves the bills, they are forwarded to the Senate for further consideration.

Together with the House of Representatives, the senators have the authority to review proposed legislation, authorize emergency decrees, and oversee state administration. Moreover, they can set up a standing committee, have the right to interpellate, and may submit a motion for a general debate without a resolution.

The Senate also has some powers that the House of Representatives does not have, including the ability to remove the prime minister, ministers, and other positions held in the legislative, judicial, and constitutional bodies. Anyone possessing unusually wealthy behavior, implied in the course of malpractice or indication exercising powers and duties, is contrary to the provisions of the law and Constitution.

The two houses of the National Assembly also have the responsibility to check the activity of constitutional organizations by approving the tasks of the commissions and reviewing their annual reports. The two houses established standing committees to exercise oversight of these organizations and the government.

3.2. Judiciary and Government Inspection Mechanisms

We can distinguish three judicial institutions responsible for monitoring the work of the Thai government, each with different jurisdictions in adjudicating disputes: the Constitutional Court, the Administrative Court, and The Supreme Court's Criminal Division for Holders of Political Positions.

表2。1997、2007和2017年宪法规定的司法职位起源比较

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司法职位的起源1997年宪法2007年宪法2017年宪法
宪法法院法官人数11名法官人数8名法官人数9名
行政法院法官须经行政法院法官委员会和参议院批准。
最高法院政治职务持有者刑事分庭最高法院九名法官,由最高法院全体会议秘密投票选出,并按个案选定法定人数调整为不少于5人,但不超过9人。
然而,根据最新宪法,最高法院政治职务持有者刑事分庭的上诉法定人数为九人。

宪法法院的权力和职能

1997、2007和2017年宪法均规定,宪法法院有权裁定法案或任何组织法案是否包含与宪法相抵触或不一致的内容。

宪法法院还负责根据宪法审议各组织之间的权力和职责问题。宪法法院对议会、内阁、法院和其他政府机构的裁决是最终的、具有约束力的。

此外,宪法法院还负责审理其他法院提交的案件,包括司法法院、行政法院和军事法院,如果法院认为适用法律规定对任何案件可能与宪法相抵触或不一致。宪法不影响法院的最终判决,包括有权审议议会、内阁或非法院的宪法机构之间的权限冲突,并可裁定何种紧急法令是不可避免的紧急情况。

行政法院的权力和职能

1997、2007和2017年宪法均规定,行政法院有权审理和裁决因行使合法行政权力或因行政活动而产生的行政案件。不包括独立机构的仲裁,因为那是对其宪法权威的直接行使。

最高法院政治职务持有者刑事分庭的权力和职能

1997、2007和2017年宪法规定,当国家反腐败委员会(NACC)认定某政治职务持有者(如总理、部长、议员、参议员或其他政治官员的行政人员和地方议会议员)资产异常增加时,最高法院政治职务持有者刑事分庭应作出裁决,由国家反腐败委员会主席将调查报告提交总检察长,由最高法院政治职务持有者刑事分庭提起公诉,以确保异常增加的资产属于国家。

3.3. 泰国宪法规定的机构

这些机构负责监督政府的工作;根据宪法,它们可被称为“独立的宪法机构”,即选举委员会、国家反腐败委员会、国家审计委员会、监察员和国家人权委员会,如表3所示。

表3。1997、2007和2017年宪法规定的监督机构比较

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组织机构1997年宪法2007年宪法2017年宪法注:当前设置
选举委员会5名委员 由国王根据参议院的建议任命7人 由国王根据参议院的建议任命。全部七人均由军政府立法机构批准。
国家反腐败委员会9名委员 由国王根据参议院的建议,从选拔委员会选出的人员中任命。两人在2014年政变前获得批准,五人在2015年由军政府立法机构批准,其余人员均由现任参议院批准,该参议院源自NCPO。
国家审计委员会一名主席和九名其他委员 由国王根据参议院的建议任命。七名委员 由国王根据参议院的建议任命。全部七人均由军政府立法机构批准。
监察员最多有3人,根据参议院的建议设置。军政府立法机构批准了一人;两人来自现任参议院,源自NCPO。
国家人权委员会一名主席和十名委员 由国王根据参议院的建议任命。一名主席和六名其他委员 由国王根据参议院的建议任命。军政府立法机构批准了两项,另有五项来自现任参议院,由国家和平与秩序委员会(NCPO)推荐。

选举委员会的权力和职能

1997年宪法规定,选举委员会负责组织或举行众议院议员、参议员、地方议员和地方行政长官的选举,以及全民公投,以确保公平公正。

国家反腐败委员会的权力和职能

1997年和2007年宪法规定,国家反腐败委员会负责审计担任政治职务者及其配偶和未成年子女的资产负债,每次其接受或离任任命时以及在滥用职权的情况下。后来的2017年宪法内容相似,但增加了调查严重违反或不遵守道德标准行为的职责。

国家审计委员会的权力和职能

1997年、2007年和2017年宪法对国家审计委员会、国家审计长和泰国审计总长办公室的权力和职责进行了类似的规定。国家审计局负责审计国家财政、编制报告并跟踪政府支出的绩效,是一个行政机构。审计长必须监督该组织。国家审计委员会负责遴选审计长并监督国家审计局的工作。

监察员的权力和职能

1997年、2007年和2017年宪法均规定,监察员有权审议调查,以查明投诉的事实。在不遵守法律、越权行事、某些行为或疏忽履行行政部门、政府官员和相关官员职责的情况下,他们还必须准备报告并向国民议会提交意见和建议。此外,当认为法律、规则、规章或任何政府官员的行为在合宪性方面存在问题时,他们有权将案件提交宪法法院或行政法院。

国家人权委员会的权力和职能

1997年、2007年和2017年宪法规定,国家人权委员会负责调查和报告侵犯人权的作为或不作为,并向采取此类行动或侵权行为的个人或机构提出适当的补救措施。如果未采取建议的措施,委员会必须向议会报告以采取进一步行动,并向国民议会和内阁提出改进法律、规则或规章的政策和建议,以促进和保护人权,以及其他相关职责。

行政部门内部也存在不具有宪法组织地位的审计机制,这些组织隶属于行政部门本身,包括特别调查部(DSI)、国家反腐败委员会(NACC)办公室和反腐败委员会(PACC)。

3.4. 泰国横向问责机制的结构

图2. 泰国横向问责机制的结构

来源: 作者绘制

泰国旨在监督政府工作的横向问责机制的设计,在组织数量、组织结构、组织权力和职责等方面已逐步成熟,这受到自1997年宪法以来运作制衡和宪政原则的组织的影响。然而,自2006年政变后,通过2007年宪法的设计,上述组织的进入来源发生了变化。此外,在2014年政变期间,同样的情况再次发生,横向问责行为者的定位发生了微妙而复杂的变化,这可以通过三个相互关联的因素来区分。

首先,参议院的来源发生了变化,其与人民的联系逐渐减弱。最初,1997年宪法要求所有参议员通过普选产生。2007年宪法后来规定,近一半的参议员不是通过普选产生的。最终,2017年宪法要求所有参议员都不是通过普选产生的。这种任命方式旨在确保参议员不与人民有直接联系。

其次,参议院来源的变化直接影响了参议员在监督政府工作中的作用。它也对横向问责体系产生了复杂的影响。由于监督机构的来源,1997年、2007年和2017年宪法要求进入监督机构的人员必须获得参议院的批准。此外,被任命为宪法法院或最高行政法院法官的人员也必须获得参议员的批准。

第三,根据2017年宪法的临时条款,现任参议员来自国家和平与秩序委员会(NCPO)。现任政府也是上述众议院和参议院批准的结果,因为在2019年选举产生了泰国总理。这批250名参议员以249票赞成、1票弃权投票支持詹纳·巴育·占沙瓦诺拉帕将军担任总理。根据现行宪法,现任政府和监督机构也源于参议员。因此,设计一个监督具有此类来源的机构来监督政府工作的机制可能不够有效,因为这些组织之间需要更多的独立性来处理现有人员之间看不见的联系和权力。

第三,根据2017年宪法的临时条款,现任参议员来自国家和平与秩序委员会(NCPO)。现任政府也是上述众议院和参议院批准的结果,因为在2019年选举产生了泰国总理。这批250名参议员以249票赞成、1票弃权投票支持詹纳·巴育·占沙瓦诺拉帕将军担任总理。根据现行宪法,现任政府和监督机构也源于参议员。因此,设计一个监督具有此类来源的机构来监督政府工作的机制可能不够有效,因为这些组织之间需要更多的独立性来处理现有人员之间看不见的联系和权力。

4. 监督机构的有效性和信任度

4.1. 民众的看法

国王普密蓬国王研究所(King Prajadhipok’s Institute)就“使用万国议会联盟指标评估泰国议会”进行了研究。研究包含五个组成部分。[2]

图3. 泰国议会的问责评估

来源: 国王普密蓬国王研究所 2019、2020、2022

根据这项研究,该研究所发现总体问责评估水平结果为中等,平均得分分别为2.25、2.41、2.65、2.60和2.55。在问责方面,得分高于其他方面的要素是选举委员会对政党补贴的监督(A3)和议员的潜力发展(A5)。议员对全国公民的问责(A1)是2019年唯一得分较高的要素(平均3.01分,满分5分)。

此外,国王普密蓬国王研究所还研究了机构信任度,特别是对法院和独立的宪法组织的信任度。根据调查结果,尽管大多数泰国人信任法院,因为“有些信任”和“非常信任”的回答占了70%以上,但到2022年,信任度逐渐下降,特别是对宪法法院和行政法院的信任度。此外,泰国人民对独立组织的信任度处于中等水平。对监察员的信任度最高,对国家人权委员会(NHRC)的信任度最低。然而,总体而言,所有组织的信任度都有所下降(国王普密蓬国王研究所 2022)。

图4. 对法院和独立宪法组织的信任百分比

来源: 国王普密蓬国王研究所 2022

4.2. 案例研究

选举委员会(EC)

本案例涉及选举委员会在检查选举透明度方面的失职。

一名来自为泰党(Pheu Thai Party)的候选人苏拉蓬·吉猜亚科恩(Suraphon Kietchaiyakorn)在清迈选区领先,之后他被取消资格并收到一张橙牌,这意味着他因向僧侣捐赠2000泰铢而无法参加未来的选举。最高法院选举法庭驳回了此选举舞弊案,他因此指控选举委员会藐视法庭。该案件被驳回,但清迈法院判决选举委员会赔偿7000万泰铢(“曼谷邮报2022年”)。因此,选举委员会的裁量权需要比以前更加谨慎和简洁,否则可能会面临反诉,导致国家动用公共资金进行赔偿。

泰国国家人权委员会(NHRCT)

本案例涉及国家人权委员会职能和权力的局限性,导致其他机构不同意按照国家人权委员会的建议解决侵犯人权的行为。

根据国家人权委员会的职责[3],它必须向相关机构提出建议,以防止侵犯人权行为。然而,它缺乏强制当局的权力,可能导致其工作缺乏独立性。因此,国家人权委员会请求行政和立法部门修订相关法律,赋予其更多权力(泰国国家人权委员会办公室 2021)。

5. 建议

5.1. 政策建议

应加强权力分立制度,坚定确立法治,并强制执行宪法赋予的使命。

应通过各种机制加强对议员权力制衡者的支持和力量,首先是对这些人进行关于其角色、责任和议员绩效的教育。此外,相关机构应提供信息和公共空间供民众表达意见。

议会应建立参与进程,允许公民社会成员发挥作用并代表人民发声,特别是弱势群体,如残疾人、少数民族或LGBTQ+群体。

国家或相关机构应提供准确且易于获取的信息,作为调查国家权力行使的机制。此外,应建立包括公众、私营部门和地方政府组织在内的各部门网络,协助调查投诉,并根据调查结果监督解决情况。

5.2. 法律建议

应修订宪法中关于进入宪法监督机构职位的规定,以实现这些组织的真正独立性,规定由普选产生的参议员批准进入上述职位。■

参考文献

Aphornsuvan, Thanet. 2001. 泰国政治史中的秩序寻求:宪法与人权。 https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/42075

曼谷邮报. 2022. “EC 对苏拉波选举案保持沉默。” 4月22日。https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/politics/2298442/ec-silent-on-surapols-election-case

Dahl, Robert Alan. 1971. Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. New Haven: Yale University Press.

King Prajadhipok’s Institute. 2019. Assessment of Thai Parliament Based on Inter - Parliamentary Union. Bangkok: King Prajadhipok’s Institute.

______. 2020. Assessment of Thai Parliament Based on Inter - Parliamentary Union. Bangkok: King Prajadhipok’s Institute.

______. 2022. Assessment of Thai Parliament Based on Inter - Parliamentary Union. Bangkok: King Prajadhipok’s Institute.

______. 2023. Assessing Public Trust in Various Institutions and Satisfaction with Public Services. Bangkok: King Prajadhipok’s Institute.

Mechkova, Valeriya, Anna Lührmann, and Staffan I. Lindberg. 2017. The Accountability Sequence: From De-Jure to De-Facto Constraints on Governments. The Varieties of Democracy Institute Working Paper Series 2017:58. https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/54331

Office of the National Human Rights Commission of Thailand. 2021. Executive Summary: National Human Rights Commission Performance Report Fiscal Year 2021. https://www.nhrc.or.th/getattachment/eb42fc89-4435-46ef-a9b6-1c300a1bdde5/Executive-Summary-NHRCT-Annual-Report-for-Fiscal-Y.aspx

Wilson, Matthew Charles. 2015. Castling The King: Institutional Sequencing and Regime Change. Electronic Theses and Dissertations for Graduate, Pennsylvania State University.


[1] 2017年泰国宪法(2022年修订版)

[2] 包含5个组成部分,即议会问责制(A),包括5个组成部分:1)全国公民对议员的问责制(A1),2)对有不道德行为的议员的监督和惩罚与利益冲突有关(A2),3)选举委员会对政党的补贴监督(A3),4)对公众对议会的信任监督(A4),以及5)议员的潜力发展(A5)。有五个级别:分数0.00 – 1.00 = 非常低,分数1.01 – 2.00 = 低,分数2.01 – 3.00 = 中等,分数3.01 – 4.00 = 高,分数4.01 – 5.00 = 非常高。

[3] 2017年国家人权委员会组织法第45条


Thawilwadee Bureekul 是King Prajadhipok’s Institute(KPI)的副秘书长,负责该研究所研究项目的规划、管理、实施和协调。除了在KPI的职务外,Bureekul博士还在泰国多所大学任教,包括亚洲理工学院、泰国法政大学、博仁大学、玛希隆大学和诗纳卡琳威洛大学。她成功地在泰国宪法中提出了“性别回应预算”,并荣获“2018年度女性”奖,并因其在“权利保护和加强性别平等”方面的杰出贡献而获得2022年奖项。

Ratchawadee Sangmahamad 是King Prajadhipok’s Institute研究与发展办公室的高级研究员。她的研究重点是性别、公民身份、选举研究和定量研究。她曾作为合著者出版过书籍,如《价值文化与民主温度计》、《泰国公民:民主公民教育》、《泰国妇女与选举:平等机会》以及许多文章。

Arithat Bunthueng 是Payap大学的法学院讲师。他曾是King Prajadhipok’s Institute研究与发展办公室的研究员。他拥有公法学士学位,对法治、自由民主国家、法律与社会、地方政府权力下放、原住民权利和人权相关的项目感兴趣并参与过相关项目。


■ 负责人及编辑:朴汉秀_EAI 研究员

联系方式:02-2277-1683 (分机号 204) hspark@eai.or.kr

附件

  • ADRNWorkingPaperMakingHorizontalAccountability_ACaseStudyofThailand.pdf

*本文为使用 AI 从韩语原文翻译而来,部分译文或语感可能存在偏差。

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